19th century
On the literary front the new century opens with
Romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the
steam engine and the
railway.
William Wordsworth and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in
England, while in the continent the German
Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as
Italy and
Spain.
French arts had been hampered by the
Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly.
Modernism began.
The Goncourts and
Emile Zola in
France and
Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. On February 21,
1848,
Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto.
There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians
Leo Tolstoy,
Anton Chekov and
Fyodor Dostoevsky; the English
Charles Dickens,
John Keats, and
Jane Austen; the Irish
Oscar Wilde; the Americans
Edgar Allan Poe and
Mark Twain; and the French
Victor Hugo,
Honoré de Balzac,
Jules Verne and
Charles Baudelaire. Some others of note included:
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Charlotte Brontë*
Emily Brontë*
Lord Byron*
François-René de Chateaubriand*
Kate Chopin*
Samuel Taylor Coleridge*
Emily Dickinson*
Alexandre Dumas, père (1802-1870)
*
Ralph Waldo Emerson*
Gustave Flaubert*
Margaret Fuller*
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe*
Nikolai Gogol*
G. A. Bécquer*
Nathaniel Hawthorne*
Friedrich Hölderlin*
Heinrich Heine*
Henrik Ibsen*
Jules Laforgue*
Giacomo Leopardi*
Alessandro Manzoni*
Henry James*
Stéphane Mallarmé*
Herman Melville*
Aleksandr Pushkin*
Arthur Rimbaud*
George Sand (Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin)
*
Mary Shelley*
Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle)
*
Robert Louis Stevenson*
Harriet Beecher Stowe*
Paul Verlaine*
Walt Whitman*
William Wordsworth*
Alfred, Lord Tennyson*
Émile ZolaThe 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term
scientist was coined in 1833 by
William Whewell. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of
Charles Darwin, who in 1859 published the book
The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of
evolution by
natural selection.
Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the
asymmetry of crystals.
Thomas Alva Edison gave the world light with his invention of the
lightbulb.
Karl Weierstrass and other mathematicians also carried out the
arithmetization of analysis. Other important 19th century scientists included:
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Amedeo Avogadro, physicist
*
Johann Jakob Balmer, mathematician, physicist
*
Henri Becquerel, physicist
*
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor
*
Ludwig Boltzmann, physicist
*
János Bolyai, mathematician
*
Louis Braille, inventor of
braille*
Robert Bunsen, chemist
*
Marie Curie, physicist, chemist
*
Pierre Curie, physicist
*
Louis Daguerre, chemist
*
Gottfried Daimler, engineer, industrial designer and industrialist
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Christian Doppler, physicist, mathematician
*
Michael Faraday, scientist
*
Léon Foucault, physicist
*
Gottlob Frege, mathematician, logician and philosopher
*
Carl Friedrich Gauss, mathematician, physicist, astronomer
*
Josiah Willard Gibbs, physicist
*
Ernst Haeckel, biologist
*
Heinrich Hertz, physicist
*
Alexander von Humboldt, naturalist, explorer
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Nikolai Lobachevsky, mathematician
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William Thomson,
Lord Kelvin, physicist
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Robert Koch, physician, bacteriologist
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Justus von Liebig, chemist
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Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors
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Wilhelm Maybach, car-engine and automobile designer and industrialist.
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James Clerk Maxwell, physicist
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Gregor Mendel, biologist
*
Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist
*
Samuel Morey, inventor
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Nicéphore Niépce,inventor
*
Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, inventor
*
Louis Pasteur, microbiologist and chemist
*
Bernhard Riemann, mathematician
*
Nikola Tesla, inventor
The Latter-day Saint religious movement was founded during the 19th century by
Joseph Smith, Jr. and
Brigham Young, which led to the set of doctrines, practices, and cultures called
Mormonism. In 1844 a young merchant from Persia proclaimed that he was the
Báb ("the Gate" in Arabic), founding the
Bábà Faith and proclaimed to be the forerunner of "
He whom God shall make manifest." In 1863,
Bahá'u'lláh (a title meaning "In the Glory of God"), himself a follower of the
Báb, proclaimed His mission as the Promised One of all religions. He is the founder of the
Bahá'à Faith.
Nikolai of Japan was a religious leader who introduced
Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan.Other prominent religious figures and philosophers of the 19th century include:
*
Báb,
Persian prophet and founder of
BábÃsm*
Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist
*
William Booth, social reformer, founder of the
Salvation Army*
Auguste Comte, philosopher
*
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher
*
Søren Kierkegaard, philosopher
*
Karl Marx, political philosopher
*
John Stuart Mill, philosopher
*
Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher
*
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic
*
Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher
*
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French
socialism*
William Morris, social reformer
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Otto Von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor |
|
Emperor Gwangmu, the 26th monarch of Joseon dynasty |
*
Otto von Bismarck,
German chancellor
*
Napoleon Bonaparte,
French general, first consul and emperor
*
Napoleon III*
John C. Calhoun,
U.S. senator
*
Henry Clay,
U.S. senator
*
Jefferson Davis, President of the
Confederate States of America just before and during the
American Civil War.
*
Joseph Fouché, French politician
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Giuseppe Garibaldi, unifier of
Italy and
Piedmontese soldier
*
Gojong of Joseon,
Korean emperor
*
William Lloyd Garrison,
U.S. abolitionist leader
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William Ewart Gladstone, British prime minister
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Ulysses S. Grant,
U.S. general and president
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Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political
Zionism*
Andrew Jackson,
U.S. general and president
*
Thomas Jefferson,
American statesman, philosopher, and president
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Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of the war of independence
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Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed
Son of God*
Benjamin Disraeli, novelist and politician
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Libertadores,
Latin American liberators
*
Robert E. Lee,
Confederate general
*
Abraham Lincoln,
U.S. president; led the nation during the
American Civil War*
Sir John A. Macdonald,
Canada, first Prime Minister of Canada
*
Mutsuhito,
Japanese emperor
*
Tokugawa Yoshinobu,　
Japanese Shogun　(The Last Shogun)
*
István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of the Hungarian reform movement
*
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician
*
Queen Victoria, British monarch
*
Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor
Research became institutionalized at research universities such as the
University of Berlin and at corporate laboratories such as Edison's
Menlo Park which accelerated the rate at which discoveries and innovations were made.
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Department stores
*
Epidemiology*
Mail order businesses*
Philology*
Postage stamps
*
Public buses*
Subway*
List of wars 1800â€"1899*
Timeline of 19th century Islamic history*
France in the nineteenth century*
Russian history, 1855â€"1892*
Mid-nineteenth century Spain*
Capitalism in the nineteenth century*
19th-century philosophy*
Timeline of trends in music (1800â€"1899)*
Nineteenth century theatre*
19th century in games*
19th century in film
