Amateur radio
Amateur radio, often called
ham radio, is a
hobby enjoyed by about 3 million people
throughout the world. An
amateur radio operator, also known as a
ham or
radio amateur, uses two-way radio equipment to communicate with other radio amateurs for public service, recreation and self-training.
Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have made significant contributions to
science,
engineering,
industry, and
social services. The
economic and social benefit derived from research by
amateur radio operators has founded new industries, built economies, empowered nations, and saved lives.
The birth of amateur radio and
radio in general has mostly been historically associated with various experimenters. There are many contenders to being the
inventor of radio, that honor has been disputed between not only the original experimenters,
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1888),
Nikola Tesla, and
Guglielmo Marconi, but also
Amos Dolbear,
Reginald Fessenden,
James Clerk Maxwell,
Sir Oliver Lodge,
Mahlon Loomis,
Nathan Stubblefield, and
Alexander Popov. In the beginning of 1895, Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York lab at
West Point (a distance of 50 miles).
[Leland Anderson, "Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, ISBN 0-9632652-0-2 (ed. excerpts available on line)] Marconi demonstrated the transmission and reception of Morse Code based radio signals over a distance of 2 or more kilometres (and up to 6 kilometres) on Salisbury Plain in England in 1896. Marconi, by 1899, sent wireless messages across the
English Channel and, according to his reports, the first transatlantic transmission (1902)
.In the period following Marconi's experiments (1900-1908) many people throughout the world began experimenting with radio. Communications were made in
Morse Code by use of
spark gap transmitters or high frequency alternators. These first amateur radio operators are the roots of the modern international phenomenon of amateur radio.
In 1912, the United States Congress passed the
Radio Act of 1912 which restricted private stations to wavelengths of 200 meters or shorter (1500 kHz or higher).
These "short wave" frequencies were generally considered useless at the time, and the number of radio hobbyists in the U.S. is estimated to have dropped by as much as 88%.
) By this time,
the term "ham" for an amateur radio operator was well established, the origins of which are obscure.
By 1917,
World War I had put a stop to amateur radio. In the United States,
Congress ordered all amateur radio operators to cease operation and even dismantle their equipment.
These restrictions were lifted after World War I ended, and the amateur radio service restarted on October 1, 1919.
In 1921, a challenge was issued by American hams to their counterparts in the United Kingdom to receive radio contacts from across the Atlantic. Soon, many American stations were beginning to be heard in the UK, shortly followed by a UK amateur being heard in the US in December of 1922. The first two way contact between the UK and USA was in December 1923, between
London and
West Hartford, Connecticut,
, although the first transatlantic shortwave contact was made a month previously by
French amateur Leon Deloy and Fred Schnell.
The first International Radiotelegraph Conference was held in Washington, DC in 1927-28.
At the conference, the familiar amateur radio
bands of
80,
40,
20 and
10 meters were established by treaty and international radio callsign prefixes were devised.
During the
German occupation of Poland, Fr.
Maximilian Kolbe, SP3RN was arrested by the Germans as a priest.
The Germans believed his amateur radio activities were somehow involved in espionage
and he was transferred to
Auschwitz on
May 28,
1941. After some prisoners escaped in 1941, The Germans ordered that 10 prisoners be killed in retribution. Fr. Kolbe was
martyred when he volunteered to take the place of one of the condemned men. On
October 10,
1982 he was
canonized by
Pope John Paul II as Saint Maximilian Kolbe, Apostle of Consecration to Mary and declared a
Martyr of charity. He is considered the
Patron saint of Amateur radio operators.
Again during World War II, as it had done during the first World War, the United States Congress suspended all amateur radio operations
. With most of the American amateur radio operators in the armed forces at this time, the US government created the
War emergency radio service which would remain active through 1945. After the War the amateur radio service began operating again, with many hams converting war surplus radios, such as the
ARC-5, to amateur use.
During the 1950s, hams helped pioneer the use of
single-sideband modulation for HF voice communication. In 1961 the first orbital satellite carrying amateur radio (
OSCAR) was launched. Oscar I would be the first of a series of amateur radio satellites created throughout the world.
The
World administrative radio conference met in Geneva, Switzerland in 1979. Among the many topics covered at this meeting was the creation of three new amateur radio bands:
30 meters,
17 meters and
12 meters. Today, these three bands are referred to collectively as the
WARC bands by amateur radio operators.
During the
Falklands War in
1982,
Argentine forces seized control of the phones and radio network on the islands and had cut off communications with
London.
Scottish amateur radio operator
Les Hamilton, GM3ITN
was able to relay crucial information from fellow hams Bob McLeod and
Tony Pole-Evans on the islands to
British military intelligence in London the details of troop deployment, bombing raids, radar bases and
military activities.
Major contributions to communications in the fields of automated message systems and
packet radio were made by amateur radio operators throughout the 1980s. These computer controlled systems were used for the first time to distribute communications during and after disasters.
By international agreement in the past, amateur radio operators were required to have a qualification endorsement of Morse Code proficiency to use frequencies below 30 MHz. In 2003 the
World radiocommunications conference (WRC) met in Geneva, Switzerland, and Morse code is no longer an internationally required qualification for an
amateur radio license.
This does not preclude any licensing authority from requiring the proficiency of Morse code to obtain an amateur radio license, however countries are no longer obliged by international treaty to require Morse code proficiency. Current rules in the United States
require some Morse code proficiency to allow operation on frequencies below 30 MHz. Proceedings by the FCC are currently underway regarding whether the requirement will be kept. Discussions regarding whether it should engender lively debate among amateur radio operators.
|
An amateur radio operator |
Amateur radio operators enjoy personal
two-way communications with friends, family members, and complete strangers, all of whom must also be licensed. They support the larger public community with
emergency and
disaster communications. Increasing a person's knowledge of
electronics and
radio theory as well as radio contesting are also popular aspects of amateur radio.
Radio amateurs use a variety of modes of transmission to communicate with one another. Voice transmissions are the most common way hams communicate with one another, with some types of emission such as
frequency modulation (FM) offering high quality audio for local operation where signals are strong, and others such as
single sideband (SSB) offering more reliable communications when signals are marginal and using smaller amounts of bandwidth.
Radiotelegraphy using Morse code remains surprisingly popular, particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental work on the microwave bands, with its inherent
signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse, using internationally agreed code groups, can also facilitate communications between amateurs who do not share a common language. Radiotelegraphy is also popular with home constructors as
CW-only transmitters are simple to construct when compared to voice transmitters.
The explosion in personal computing power has led to a boom in
digital modes such as
radioteletype, which a generation ago required cumbersome and expensive specialist equipment. Hams led in the development of
packet radio, which has since been augmented by more specialized modes such as
PSK31 which is designed to facilitate real-time, low-power communications on the shortwave bands. Other modes, such as the
WSJT suite, are aimed at extremely marginal
propagation modes including
meteor scatter and
moonbounce or Earth-Moon-Earth (EME).
Similarly, fast scan
amateur television, once considered rather esoteric, has exploded in popularity thanks to cheap camcorders and good quality video cards in
home computers. Because of the wide
bandwidth and stable signals required, fast scan amateur television is limited in range to at most 100 km (about 60 miles) in normal conditions.
The modes noted above are typically used in direct, radio-to-radio communication. On VHF and higher frequencies, automated relay stations, or
repeaters, are used to increase range. Repeaters are usually located on the top of a
mountain or tall
building. A repeater allows the radio amateur to communicate over hundreds of square miles using only a relatively low power hand-held
transceiver. Repeaters can also be linked together, either by use of other amateur radio bands, by wireline, or, increasingly via the
Internet.
|
Ham radio station with separate transmitter, receiver and power supply. |
While many hams just enjoy talking to friends, others pursue interests such as providing communications for a
community emergency response team;
antenna theory; communication via
amateur satellites ;
disaster response;
severe weather spotting;
DX communication over thousands of miles using the
ionosphere to refract
radio waves; the
Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) which is a composite network of radio and the Internet;
Automatic Position Reporting System (APRS), which is a system of remote positioning that uses
GPS;
Contesting; the sport of
Amateur Radio Direction Finding;
High Speed Telegraphy; or
low-power operation.
Most hams have a room or area in their home which is dedicated to their radio and ancillary test equipment, known as the "shack" in ham
slang.
Many hams enjoy meeting each other in person at events held in various locations. These annual events are generally known as a
hamfest with the largest being held in
Dayton Ohio.
QSL cards
Traditionally, radio amateurs exchange
QSL cards with other stations to provide written confirmation of a conversation (
QSO). These are required for many amateur operating awards, and many amateurs also enjoy collecting them simply for the pleasure of doing so.
DXing
Many amateurs enjoy trying to contact
stations in as many different parts of the world as they can on shortwave bands, or over as great a range as possible on the higher bands, in a pursuit which is generally known as
DXing.
Awards
Operating awards are given to hams who contact (or "work") a certain number of distant stations. The number of operating awards available is literally in the thousands. The most popular awards are the
Worked All States award, usually the first award amateurs in the United States aim for, the
Worked All Continents award, also an entry level award on the shortwave bands, and the more challenging
Worked All Zones and
DX Century Club (DXCC) awards. DXCC is the most popular awards programme, with the entry level requiring amateurs to contact 100 of the (
as of 2005) 335 recognized countries and territories in the world, which leads on to a series of operating challenges of increasing difficulty. Other popular awards include contacting remote islands, US counties, and lighthouses. Many awards are available for contacting amateurs in a particular country, region or city.
DX-peditions
 |
A group of amateur radio operators during DX-pedition to The Gambia in October 2003. |
Certain parts of the world have very few radio amateurs. As a result, when a station with a rare ID comes on the air in these areas, other radio amateurs flock to communicate with it. Often amateurs will travel specifically to a country or island, in what is known as a
DX-pedition, to activate it. Big DX-peditions can contact and communicated with as many as 100,000 individuals in a few weeks.
Special event stations
Many amateurs also enjoy contacting the many special event stations on the air. Set up to commemorate special occurrences, they often issue distinctive QSLs or certificates for communicating with them. Some use unusual prefixes, such as the
call signs with "96" that amateurs in the US State of
Georgia could use during the
1996 Atlanta Olympics, or the OO prefix used by Belgian amateurs in 2005 to commemorate their nation's 175th anniversary. Some events are held annually such as
Guides on the Air and
Jamboree on the Air. Many amateurs decorate their radio "shacks" with these certificates.
Contesting
Contesting, also known as
radiosport, is a competitive activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest, an amateur radio station, which may be operated by an individual or a team, seeks to contact as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time and exchange information. Rules for each competition define the amateur radio bands that may be used and the kind of information that must be exchanged in each contact. These contacts contribute to a score by which stations are ranked. Each competition is sponsored separately and has its own set of rules. Contest sponsors publish the results in magazines and on web sites. Over time, the number and variety of radio contests has increased, and many amateur radio operators today pursue the sport as their primary amateur radio activity.
Round table discussion groups
Many Amateur radio operators enjoy participating in round table discussion groups or "Rag Chew Sessions" on the air. These discussion groups have been a mainstay of Amateur radio since its inception.
Round table discussion groups are often configured to allow the conversation to pass from one participant to another. The participants spend time developing and presenting their thoughts as the conversation passes from one person to another much as conversation would flow at a dinner table after a good meal. The conversation usually revolves around do-it-yourself experimentation; repairs; and topics related to radio, computers and electronics; however, there is no limit to their scope.
Nets
Related to round tables is another popular activity called the "Net", which is a regularly scheduled (usually weekly) on-air meeting with other amateur radio operators, hosted and moderated by a station referred to as "Net Control". Nets may be used simply as a readiness tool for operators to be familiar with Net control procedures in an emergency, could be an informal round table at a scheduled time, or may be topical, covering specific ham-related interests shared by a group of operators. Most Nets are hosted on local FM repeaters or on HF frequencies. Many Nets feature a playback of audio news recordings such as
Amateur Radio Newsline. Since most local club FM repeaters host Nets, it is often the most accessible large-scale activity for new hams, by being able to participate using simply an HT.
Portable operations
 |
Kamal Edirisinghe, 4S7AB, from Sri Lanka, operating a portable Amateur Radio station south of Stockholm, Sweden. |
Licensed amateurs often take portable equipment with them when traveling, whether in their luggage or fitted into their cruising yachts, caravans or other vehicles. On long-distance expeditions and adventures such equipment allows them to stay in touch with other amateurs by reporting progress, arrival and sometimes exchanging safety messages along the way.
Many hams at fixed locations are pleased to hear directly from such travelers. From in a yacht in mid-ocean or a 4x4 inside the Arctic Circle, a friendly voice and the chance of a kind fellow-enthusiast sending an e-mail home is very well received.
See
maritime mobile amateur radio for further details about operation in this way at sea.
Amateur radio licenses in some countries allow for phone patching, or the direct connection of amateur transceivers to telephone lines. Thus, a traveler may be able to call another amateur station and, via a phone patch, speak directly with someone else by telephone.
Emergency communications (EMCOM)
In times of crisis and
natural disasters, ham radio is often used as a means of emergency communication when wireline and other conventional means of communications fail. Recent examples include the 2001 attacks on the
World Trade Center in
Manhattan, the
2003 North America blackout and
Hurricane Katrina in September, 2005, where amateur radio was used to coordinate disaster relief activities when other systems failed. Amateur radio operators who are involved in emergency communications often belong to a national or local emergency club, such as
ARES and
RACES in the
United States,
AREC in
New Zealand,
RAYNET in the
United Kingdom,
WICEN in
Australia and
Hamnet in
South Africa.
Storm watching
In areas where severe storms are possible, such as the Midwestern and southern states of the U.S., storm watching groups such as
SKYWARN coordinate amateur radio operators in the roles of storm spotters and chasers to keep track of severe thunderstorms, particularly due to the threat of destructive and deadly tornadoes. Reports from spotters and chasers are given to the
National Weather Service to warn the general public of severe weather conditions in their area.
Low power operations
There is a specialty within amateur radio that concentrates on the construction and operation of low-power transmitters. This activity goes by the name
QRP which is an international
Q code for "reduce power". QRP operators use less than 5 watts output on Morse Code and 10 watts on voice.
VHF, UHF and microwave operation
The Amateur radio high bands are the VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies above 30 MHz. These bands typically allow radio amateurs to communicate locally. While many radio amateurs use modest equipment on VHF or UHF frequencies primarily for local communications, other amateurs use more sophisticated systems to communicate over as wide a distance as possible.
One technique some amateur radio operators use to communicate over long distances is to use the surface of the moon as a passive reflector. operation, or EME, allows communications between any two places on the earth which can see the moon at the same time.
Amateurs also operate on frequencies in the
microwave region. The most popular is the 2.4 GHz band using which is commonly called
WiFi. In addition to
Part 15 amateurs also can operate under
Part 97 rules which allow for higher
ERP. These networks give amateurs access to speeds measured in the megabits per second. Several long link amateur microwave networks exist. With high gain antennas and commonly available consumer grade Wireless
Access Points, links of several miles are common and links to 50 miles are more have been accomplished.
In most countries, amateur radio operators are required to pass an exam displaying knowledge and understanding of key concepts. This practice is in contrast to other personal radio services such as
CB radio,
Multi-Use Radio Service, or
Family Radio Service /
PMR446 that are unlicensed and more heavily restricted. In return, hams are granted operating privileges in larger segments of the
radio frequency spectrum using a wide variety of communication techniques that would otherwise be unavailable to them. Hams are also allowed to use equipment that they have either built themselves or modified from existing commercial or amateur gear. This privilege is unavailable in virtually any other radio service.
Getting started
Many people become started in amateur radio by finding a local club. Clubs can provide information about licensing in their respective area, local operating practices and technical advice. (
See :Category: Amateur radio organizations)
In many countries, amateur licensing is a routine and civil administrative matter. Amateurs are required to pass an examination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operating competence and awareness of legal and regulatory requirements in order to avoid interference with other amateurs and other radio services. In the majority of countries, there are a series of exams available, each progressively more challenging and granting progressively more privileges in terms of frequency availability, power output, and permitted experimentation than previous exams.
In some countries, however, amateur radio licensing is either inordinately bureaucratic (for example in
India) or challenging because some amateurs must undergo difficult security approval (as in
Iran). A handful of countries, currently only
Yemen and
North Korea, simply do not permit their citizens to operate
amateur radio stations, although in both cases a limited number of foreign visitors have been permitted to obtain amateur licenses in the past decade.
A further difficulty occurs in developing countries, where licensing structures are often copied from European countries and annual license fees can be prohibitive in terms of local incomes. This is a particular problem in
Africa and to a lesser extent in poorer parts of
Asia and
Latin America. Small countries or those with weak administrative structures may not have a national licensing scheme and may require amateurs to take the licensing exams of a foreign country in lieu.
Amateur radio licensing in the United States serves as an example of the way some countries award different levels of amateur radio licenses based on knowledge and telegraphy skill.
When licensed
After licensing, a radio amateur's local
government typically issues a
callsign to the radio amateur. This callsign is unique to the operator and is often a source of pride. The holder of a callsign uses it on the air to legally identify the operator or
station during any and all radio
communicationPrivileges of the amateur
In contrast to most commercial and personal radio services, most radio amateurs are not restricted to using type-approved equipment, and therefore some radio amateurs home-construct or modify equipment in any way so long as they meet national and international standards on
spurious emissions.
As noted, radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations throughout the RF spectrum, enabling choice of frequency to enable effective communication whether across a city, a region, a country, a continent or the whole world regardless of season or time day or night. The shortwave bands, or
HF, can facilitate worldwide communication, the
VHF and
UHF bands offer excellent regional communication, and the broad
microwave bands have enough space, or
bandwidth, for
television (known as
SSTV and
FSTV) transmissions and high-speed
data networks.
Although permitted
power levels are moderate by commercial standards, they are sufficient to enable cross-continental communication even with the least effective
antenna systems and world-wide communications at least occasionally even with moderate antennas. Power limits vary from country to country. for For example, the highest license classes are: 2
kilowatts in most countries of the former Yugoslavia, 1.5 kilowatts in the United States, 1 kilowatt in Belgium and Switzerland, 750 watts in Germany, 400 watts in the United Kingdom, 300 watts in Italy and 150 watts in Oman. Lower license classes are usually restricted to lower power limits; for example, the lowest license class in the UK has a limit of just 10 watts.
Some people suggest that the amateur portion of the radio spectrum is like a national park: something like the
Yosemite of natural phenomenon. Through the licensing requirement, radio amateurs become like trained
national park guides and backpackers. Where the backpackers and guides know about the beauty of the parks as well as the rules of engagement with wildlife in the park system, radio amateurs learn to appreciate and respect the beauty of the very limited electromagnetic space and the rules of engagement of human interaction within that space. In contrast, all of humanity benefits from the radio spectrum's existence, although it can not actually be seen.
In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission licenses operators in the Amateur Service as part of a mission that includes radio experimentation, public service, and the maintaining of a trained pool of technically-oriented operators. In exchange for learning the information needed to pass the federal test, licensed operators are allowed to use some 1300 distinct modes of communications at power levels ranging from microwatts to thousands of watts, effective radiated power.
International licensing and operation
When traveling abroad, the visitor must hold a reciprocal license with the country in which she or he wishes to operate. Reciprocal licensing requirements vary from country to country. Some countries have bilateral or multilateral reciprocal operating agreements allowing hams to operate within their borders with a single set of requirements.
The
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies world-wide, with participation by each nation by representation from their communications regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as radio services in other countries do not suffer interference.
In some countries, specific
emission types are restricted to certain parts of the radio spectrum, and in most other countries,
International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) member societies adopt voluntary plans to concentrate modes of transmission in specific frequency allocations within IARU guidelines to ensure the most effective use of available spectrum.
Many countries have their own national (non-government) amateur radio society that coordinates with the communications regulation authority for the benefit of all Amateurs. The oldest of these societies is the
Wireless Institute of Australia, formed in 1910; other notable societies are the
Radio Society of Great Britain, the
American Radio Relay League,
Radio Amateurs of Canada and
South African Radio League.
Band plans and frequency allocations
Through
ITU agreement, frequencies have been set aside for amateur radio. Using allocated frequencies as a basis of planning, national telecommunication agencies decide which of the international allocations can be used within their borders. National amateur radio societies often have band plans to further divide those allocations, often by use.
However, there is at least one case of amateur radio operators being allowed by a national telecommunication agency to use frequencies outside of the internationally allocated amateur radio bands. In
Trinidad and Tobago, hams are allowed to use a repeater which is located on 148.80 MHz. This repeater is used and maintained by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), but may be used by radio amateurs in times of emergency or during normal times to test their capability and conduct emergency drills. This repeater can also be used by non-ham NEMA staff and
REACT members. Casual conversation and rag chewing is discouraged, but local hams are encouraged to test their capability on the repeater regularly. NEMA also maintains a repeater within the two meter band on 147.80 MHz. However, REACT members are not allowed to use this repeater.
There are a number of
satellites available for amateur use. Hams are also often able to make contact with the
ISS. "More people have operated from the ISS than from (
insert DXpedition location here)" is a not infrequent remark to express the rarity of certain terrestrial locations. Amateur radio gear operating at more than 200 kilometers are called
OSCARs or Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio.
One of the newer OSCAR satellitesâ€"
AO-51 (previously known as AMSAT Echo)â€"is one of the most accessible amateur radio satellites to date. When configured for high-power mode, it can be operated with as little as a handy-talkie (
HT) with a stock "rubber duck" antenna.
Amateur radio can be found throughout popular culture as a plot device. An example from
Hollywood is the 2000 film
Frequency. In it, the two main characters, a father and son (played by
Dennis Quaid and
Jim Caviezel respectively), communicate via amateur radio after the father has died. This communication is, of course, impossible, but was used as a plot device. A wealth of additional information may be found at the main article link shown above.
Another example would be the "Radio Ham" episode of 1960s British comedy series "Hancock's Half Hour".
There are also famous
Amateur radio operators such as
King Juan Carlos I of
Spain,
Walter Cronkite,
Joe Walsh, the late
Chet Atkins and
King Hussein of
Jordan as well as many Astronauts and Cosmonauts.
*
List of amateur radio organizations*
AMSAT - Amateur Satellite Organization
*
APRS - Automatic Packet Reporting System
*
ARRL - American Radio Relay League
*
HamsexyCited References
;General References*American Radio Relay League (2006).
The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications 2006. 83rd Edition. Newington, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN
0-87259-949-3.
*Bergquit, Carl (2001).
Ham Radio Operator's Guide. Second Edition. Prompt Publishing, 2001. ISBN
0-79061-238-0.
*Cain, James D. (2003).
YASME: The Danny Weil and Colvin Radio Expeditions. Newington, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN
0-87259-893-4*Dennison, Mike and Lorek, Chris, eds. (2006).
RSGB Radio Communication Handbook. 8th Edition. Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN
0-90508-609-1.
*DeSoto, Clinton B. (1936).
200 Meters and Down: THe Story of Amateur Radio. West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN
0-87259-001-1*Gregory, Danny and Sahre, Paul (2003).
Hello World: A Life in Ham Radio. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN
1-56898-281-X*Messerschmidt, Donald A. (1997).
Moran of Kathmandu: Pioneer Priest, Educator and Ham Radio Voice of the Himalaya. Orchard Press. ISBN
9-74829-972-4*Poole, Ian (2001).
HF Amateur Radio. Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN
1-87230-975-5
