Antarctica
Antarctica| (proposed flag for Antarctica, not official) | | Area | 14,000,000 km² (5,405,430 mi²) (280,000 km² (108,108 mi²) ice-free, 13,720,000 km² (5,297,321 mi²) ice-covered) |
| Population | ~1000 (none permanent) |
| Government | governed by the Antarctic Treaty System |
| Partial Territorial claims |
|
| Internet TLD | .aq |
| Calling Code | +672 |
|
Antarctic Peninsula glacier. |
Antarctica is the southernmost continent and encompasses the
South Pole. Antarctica is surrounded by the
Southern Ocean and divided by the
Transantarctic Mountains. On average, it is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent and has the highest average elevation of all the continents.
At 14.425 million km², Antarctica is the third-smallest continent after
Europe and
Oceania and 98% of it is covered in
ice. Because there is little
precipitation, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest
desert in the world. There are no permanent human residents and Antarctica has never had an indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including
penguins,
fur seals,
mosses,
lichens, and many types of
algae. The name "Antarctica" comes from the
Greek ανταρκτικός (
antarktikos), meaning "opposite the
Arctic."
[ | year=1940 | url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 | accessdate=12 February | accessyear=2006}}]Although myths and speculation about a
Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the
Russian expedition of
Mikhail Lazarev and
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location.
The
Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 countries. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's
ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html#People]
|
Ice cap. Although this and the other pictures on this page show interesting features, a "typical" picture of Antarctica would show nothing but a flat white snowfield. |
Belief in the existence of a
Terra Australis " a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa " had existed since
Ptolemy suggested the idea in order to preserve
symmetry of
landmass in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish
Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that
South America and
Australia were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.
European maps continued to show this land until
Captain James Cook's ships,
Resolution and
Adventure, crossed the
Antarctic Circle on
January 17,
1773 and again in 1774.
The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by two individuals. According to various organizations (the
National Science Foundation,
,
[NASA, U.S. Government Palmer biography Retrieved February 6 2006.] the
University of California, San Diego,
[University of California, San Diego Palmer Station Retrieved February 5 2006.] and other sources
[South-Pole An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959. Retrieved February 12 2006][Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s. Retrieved February 12 2006.]), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820:
Fabian von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy),
Edward Bransfield (a captain in the British Navy), and
Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen supposedly saw Antarctica on
January 27,
1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and
Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.
In 1841, explorer
James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the
Ross Sea and discovered
Ross Island. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the
Ross Ice Shelf.
Mount Erebus and
Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition:
HMS Erebus and
HMS Terror.
[James Clark Ross South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12 2006.]During an
expedition led by
Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by
T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb
Mount Erebus and to reach the
South Magnetic Pole.
[Australian Antarctic Division. Tannatt William Edgeworth David Retrieved February 7 2006.] On
December 14,
1911, a party led by Norwegian polar explorer
Roald Amundsen from the ship
Fram became the first to reach the geographic
South Pole, using a route from the
Bay of Whales and up the
Axel Heiberg Glacier.
[South-pole Roald Amundsen South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9 2006.]Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.
[70South. Richard Byrd. Retrieved February 12 2006.] However, it was not until
October 31,
1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral
George Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.
[U.S. Navy. Dates in American Naval History: October. Retrieved February 12 2006.] |
A satellite composite image of Antarctica. |
|
Size comparison Europe-Antarctica. |
Most of Antarctica is located south of the
Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the
Southern Ocean. It is the southernmost
land mass and comprises more than 14 million km², making it the fifth-largest continent. The coastline measures 17 968 km (11,160 miles) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:
Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)| Type | Frequency |
|---|
| Ice shelf (floating ice front) | 44% |
| Ice walls (resting on ground) | 38% |
| Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) | 13% |
| Rock | 5% |
| Total | 100% |
|---|
Physically, it is divided in two by the
Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the
Ross Sea and the
Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called
Western Antarctica and the remainder
Eastern Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the
Greenwich meridian.
About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the
Antarctic ice sheet. The
ice sheet is, on average, 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) thick. The continent has approximately 90% of the world's
fresh water, in the form of ice.
[Central Intelligence Agency [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6 2006.] In most of the interior of the continent precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm/yr; in a few "
blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.
Western Antarctica is covered by the
West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down,
ocean levels would rise by several meters in a relatively
geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic
ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many
Antarctic ice shelves.
Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4892 meters (16,050 feet), is located in the
Ellsworth Mountains. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only
Deception Island and
Mt. Erebus are active. Mount Erebus, located in
Ross Island, is the southernmost active volcano. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.
[British Antarctic Survey. Volcanoes. Retrieved February 13 2006.] In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the
Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.
[National Science Foundation. Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica. Retrieved February 13 2006]Antarctica is home to more than 70
lakes that lie thousands of meters under the surface of the continental ice sheet.
Lake Vostok, discovered beneath
Russia's
Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these
subglacial lakes. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain
microbial life. The sealed, frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with
Jupiter's moon
Europa. Confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok strengthens the argument for life on the satellite.
[National Science Foundation Lake Vostok Retrieved February 6 2006.][NASA Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa Retrieved February 4 2006.]It is also interesting to note that some
Flat-Earthers don't believe in the existence of Antarctica.
Geological history and paleontology
More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the
supercontinent Gondwana. Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago.
Paleozoic era (540-250 Mya)
During the Cambrian period Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of
sandstones,
limestones and
shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor
invertebrates and
trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Mya) Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time.
Sand and
silts were laid down in what is now the
Ellsworth,
Horlick and
Pensacola Mountains.
Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Mya) as Gondwana became centered around the
South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as
Glossopteris, which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the
Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.
Mesozoic era (250-65 Mya)
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica the
seed fern became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206-146 Mya), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean.
Ginkgo trees and
cycads were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as
Lystrosaurus. In West Antarctica
conifer forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146-65 Mya), though
Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period.
Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur species (
Cryolophosaurus and
Antarctopelta) have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.
Gondwana breakup (160-23 Mya)
Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya, followed by
India in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then connected to
Australia) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a
marsupial fauna. About 40 Mya
Australia-
New Guinea separated from Antarctica and the first ice began to appear. Around 23 Mya, the
Drake Passage between Antarctica and
South America resulted in the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.
Geology of present-day Antarctica
|
Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass. |
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as
remote sensing have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.
Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the
Andes of
South America.
The
Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and
metamorphism of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by
igneous intrusions and
volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are
andesite and
rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in
Marie Byrd Land and
Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the
Ellsworth Mountains region, where the
stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.
East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the
Precambrian era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a
metamorphic and
igneous platform which is the basis of the
continental shield. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as
sandstones,
limestones, coal and
shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the
Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as
Shackleton Range and
Victoria Land some
faulting has occurred.
The main
mineral resource known on the continent is
coal.
It was first recorded near the
Beardmore Glacier by
Frank Wild on the
Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The
Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of
iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the
oil and
natural gas fields found in the
Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. It is a frozen desert with little
precipitation; the South Pole itself receives almost none. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −85 °C and −90 °C (−121 °F and −130 °F) in the winter and about 30 degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.
[British Antarctic Survey. Weather in the Antarctic Retrieved February 9 2006.] Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of higher elevation.
Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent,
ice there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded.
At the edge of the continent, strong
katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer more
solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the
equator in an equivalent period.
Antarctica is colder than the
Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 km above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the
Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.
Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The
aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole. Another unique spectacle is
diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A
sun dog, a frequent atmospheric
optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true
sun.
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent
research stations throughout the continent. The population of people doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4000 in summer to 1000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.
The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the
Antarctic Convergence) were English and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on
South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included
Grytviken,
Leith Harbour,
King Edward Point,
Stromness,
Husvik,
Prince Olav Harbour,
Ocean Harbour and
Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of
Grytviken, Captain
Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910, and his family.
The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl
Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on
8 October 1913, and her birth registered by the resident British Magistrate of
South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of
Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island
[R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.].
Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at
Base Esperanza in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the
Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.
[The Antarctic Sun Questions and answers Retrieved February 9 2006.]Flora
|
More than 300 species of lichens are known in Antarctica. |
The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor
soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly
mosses and
liverworts. The
autotrophic community is made up of mostly
protists. The
flora of the continent largely consists of
lichens,
bryophytes,
algae, and
fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.
There are 300 to 400 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are
phytoplankton. Multicolored
snow algae and
diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula:
Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) and
Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort).
[Australian Antarctic Division Antarctic Wildlife Retrieved February 5 2006.]Fauna
Land
fauna is nearly completely
invertebrate. Invertebrate life includes
microscopic mites,
lice,
nematodes,
tardigrades,
rotifers, and
springtails. The
midge, just 12
mm in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than humans). The
Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the
South Pole.
A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes
penguins,
blue whales, and
fur seals. The
Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the
Adélie Penguin breeds further south than any other penguin. The
Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes.
King penguins,
Chinstrap penguins, and
Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic.
The
Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The
Weddell Seal, a "
true seal", is named after
Sir James Weddell, commander of
British sealing expeditions in the
Weddell Sea.
Antarctic krill, which congregates in large
schools, is the
keystone species of the
ecosystem of the
Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals,
leopard seals, fur seals,
squid,
icefish, penguins,
albatrosses and many other birds.
[Creatures of Antarctica Retrieved February 6 2006.]The passing of the
Antarctic Conservation Act brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.
Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of
Patagonian toothfish, remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes in 2000.
[BBC News. Toothfish at risk from illegal catches. Retrieved February 11 2006.][Australian Antarctic Division. Toothfish. Retrieved February 11 2006.] |
Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel 'Vanguardia'. |
As the only uninhabited continent, Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it but these claims are typically not recognized by others. The area between 90°W and 150°W is the only part of Antarctica, indeed the only solid land on Earth, not claimed by any country.
Since 1959, claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959
Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the
Antarctic Treaty System. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and
ice shelves south of 60°S. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the
Soviet Union and the
United States. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first
arms control agreement established during the
Cold War.
The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are only permitted for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes.
[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Antarctic Treaty Retrieved February 9 2006.] The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was
Operation NINETY, undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty by the
Argentine military.
[Antarctica Institute of Argentina. Argentina in Antarctica Retrieved February 9 2006.]The
United States military issues the
Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.
[U.S. Navy Antarctic Service Medal Retrieved February 9 2006.] Unlike other world powers, the United States has made no territorial claim in Antarctica, though it reserves the right to do so, nor does it recognise the claims of any other state.
[United States [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html CIA World Factbook] Retrieved July 2 2006.]Antarctic territories
|
Territorial claims of Antarctica. |
The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap.
Germany also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as
New Swabia, between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from to , overlapping Norway's claim.
Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.
[Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences Importance of Antarctica Retrieved February 5 2006.] |
Antarctic postal services. |
Small-scale
tourism has existed since 1957 and is currently self-regulated by
International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). However, not all vessels have joined the IAATO. Several
ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010.
[International association of Antarctica Tour Operators. Tourism Statistics. Retrieved March 4 2006.][Politics of Antarctica Retrieved February 5 2006.] There has been some recent concern over the adverse environmental and ecosystem affects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by both environmentalists and scientists.
[Telegraph UK. Tourism threatens Antarctic. Retrieved March 4 2006.] Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of
Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on
Mount Erebus, and resumed from Australia in the mid-1990s.
|
A ten "antarctican dollars" bill |
A currency, the
Antarctican dollar, has been proposed by a US company, and may be accepted at parity with the
United States dollar. Although not the official currency of the continent, the currency may be used if both parties agree. [
1].
|
A full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right. |
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct
experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4000 scientists operate
research stations; this number decreases to nearly 1000 in the winter.
The
McMurdo Station is capable of housing more than 1000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.
Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists.
Geologists tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the
outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent
Gondwanaland.
Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating
ice,
seasonal snow,
glaciers, and
ice sheets.
Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.
Astrophysicists in
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station are able to study the celestial dome and
cosmic microwave background radiation because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest
neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 km below Amundsen-Scott station.
[Antarctic Connection Science in Antarctica Retrieved February 4 2006.]Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the
ozone layer in the
atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985 3 British Scientists working on data they had gathered at
Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998
NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic
ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.
Meteorites
Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the
solar system; most are thought to come from
asteroids, but some may have originated on larger
planets. The first meteorites found in Antarctica were in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the
ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.
[NASA Meteorites from Antarctica Retrieved February 9 2006.]This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly
ALH84001 discovered by
ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.
In 2006 a team of researchers from
Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's
GRACE satellites to discover the 300-mile-wide
Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250 million years ago.
|
Stamp commemoration 10 Years of Bulgarian Antarctic Cartography. |
*
List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands*
List of places with fewer than ten residents (Note: refers to permanent residents)
*
Antarctica ecozone*
Antarctic Stamps*
Soviet Antarctic Expedition*
Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics*
Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics*
Chile Antarctic Geopolitics*
Communications in Antarctica*
Flags of Antarctica*
Life in the Freezer, a
BBC natural history
television series on life on and around Antarctica
*
Transportation in Antarctica*
Ancient world maps*
World map*
List of Bulgarian toponyms in Antarctica* The
Icebird, an
Australian supply vessel.
*
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat*
'A' Net Station - radio station in Antarctica
*
The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica*
The Antarctic Sun - newspaper of the US McMurdo Station
*
Big Dead Place*
International Polar Foundation*
Australian Antarctic Division*
British Antarctic Survey*
Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica*
Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), official homepage.
*
German Antarctic Ships and Stations*
Portals on the World - Antarctica from the
Library of Congress*
The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic*
The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook – Antarctica] from the U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency*
Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South*
International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)*
The United States Antarctic Program*
Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria*
One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica*
Surveying Antarctica, 1957*
A photo journal of Antarctica and the islands of the Southern Ocean*
Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica;Commercial
*
Antarctic Connection (information section)zh-yue:南極洲
