Apennine mountains
This is about the terrestrial mountain range. There is also a lunar mountain range named the Montes Apenninus.The
Apennine Mountains (Greek: Απεννινος; Latin:
Appenninus--in both cases used in the singular; Italian:
Appennini) is a
mountain range stretching 1000
km from the north to the south of
Italy along its east coast, traversing the entire
peninsula, and forming, as it were, the backbone of the country.
The name is probably derived from the
Celtic pen, a mountain top: it originally belonged to the northern portion of the chain, from the
Maritime Alps to
Ancona; and
Polybius is probably the first writer who applied it to the whole chain, making, indeed, no distinction between the Apennines and the Maritime Alps, and extending the former name as far as
Marseilles. They lend their name to the
Apennine peninsula which forms the major part of Italy. The mountains are mostly green and wooded, although one side of the highest peak,
Corno Grande (
2,912 m), is partially covered by the southernmost
glacier in Europe. The eastern slopes down to the
Adriatic Sea are steep, while the western slopes form a plain on which most of Italy's historic cities are located.
Classical authors do not differentiate the various parts of the chain, but use the name as a general name for the whole. The total length is some 800 miles and the maximum width 70 to 80 miles.
 |
Apennines in Emilia (Pietra di Bismantova) |
Modern geographers divide the range into three parts: northern, central and southern.
Northern Apennines
The northern Apennines are generally distinguished (though there is no real solution of continuity) from the Maritime Alps at the Bocchetta dell' Altare, some 5 miles west of
Savona on the high road to
Turin. [The ancient
Via Aemilia Scauri, built in 109 BC, led over this pass, but originally turned east to Dertona (mod.
Tortona).] They again are divided into three parts--the Ligurian, Tuscan and Umbrian Apennines.
Ligurian Apennines
The Ligurian Apennines extend as far as the pass of La Cisa in the upper valley of the Magra (anc.
Macra) above
Spezia; at first they follow the curve of the
Gulf of Genoa, and then run east-south-east parallel to the coast. On the north and north-east lie the broad plains of
Piedmont and
Lombardy, traversed by the
Po, the Apennines, itself rises in the Maritime Alps, whilrange are short and unimportant. The south side of the range rises steeply from the sea, leaving practically no coast strip: its slopes are sheltered and therefore fertile and highly cultivated, and the coast towns form the favourite winter resorts of the
Italian Riviera.
The highest point (the Monte Bue) reaches 5915 feet. The
Tuscan Apennines
The Tuscan Apennines extend from the pass of La Cisa to the sources of the
Tiber. The main chain continues to run in an east-south-east direction, but traverses the peninsula, the west coast meanwhile turning almost due south. From the northern slopes many rivers and streams run north and north-north-east into the Po, the
Secchia (
Secia) and
Panaro (
Scultenna) being among the most important, while farther east most of the rivers are tributaries of the
Reno (anc.
Rhenus).
Other small streams,
e.g. the Ronco (
Bedesis) and Montone (
Utis), which flow into the sea together east of
Ravenna, were also tributaries of the Po; and the Savio (
Sapis) and the
Rubicon seem to be the only streams from this side of the Tuscan Apennines that ran directly into the sea in
Roman days. From the south-west side of the main range the
Arno and Serchio run into the Mediterranean. This section of the Apennines is crossed by two railways, from
Pistoia to
Bologna and from
Florence to
Faenza, and by several good high roads, of which the direct road from Florence to Bologna over the Futa pass is of Roman origin; and certain places in it are favourite summer resorts. The highest point of the chain is Monte Cimone (7103 feet). The so-called Alpi Apuane (the
Apuani were an ancient people of
Liguria), a detached chain south-west of the valley of the Serchio, rise to a maximum height of 6100 feet. They contain the famous
marble quarries of
Carrara. The greater part of Tuscany, however, is taken up by lower hills, which form no part of the Apennines, being divided from the main chain by the valleys of the
Arno, Chiana (
Clanis) and Paglia (
Pallia), Towards the west they are rich in minerals and chemicals, which the Apennines proper do not produce.
Umbrian Apennines
The Umbrian Apennines extend from the sources of the Tiber to (or perhaps rather beyond) the pass of Scheggia near Cagli, where the ancient
Via Flaminia crosses the range. The highest point is the Monte Nerone (5010 feet). The chief river is the Tiber itself: the others, among which the Foglia (
Pisaurus),
Metauro and Esino (This river (anc. Aesis) was the boundary of Italy proper in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC) may be mentioned, run north-east into the Adriatic, which is some 30 miles from the highest points of the chain. This portion of the range is crossed near its southern termination by a railway from Foligno to Ancona (which at Fabriano has a branch to
Macerata and
Civitanova Marche, on the Adriatic coast railway), which may perhaps be conveniently regarded as its boundary. (The Monte Conero, to the south of Ancona, was originally an island of the
Pliocene sea.) By some geographers, indeed, it is treated as a part of the central Apennines.
Central Apennines
The central Apennines are the most extensive portion of the chain, and stretch as far as the valley of the
Sangro (
Sangrus). To the north are the Monti Sibillini, the highest point of which is the
Monte Vettore (8128 feet). Farther south three parallel chains may be traced, the westernmost of which (the Monti Sabini) culminates to the south in the Monte Viglio (7075 feet), the central chain in the Monte Terminillo (7260 feet), and farther south in the Monte Velino (8160 feet), and the eastern in the Gran Sasso d'Italia (9560 feet), the highest summit of the Apennines, and the Maiella group (Monte Amaro, 9170 feet).
Between the western and central ranges are the plain of
Rieti, the valley of the Salto (
Himella), and the
Lago Fucino; while between the central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and
Sulmona. The chief rivers on the west are the
Nera (
Nar), with its tributaries the Velino (
Velinus) and Salto, and the
Anio, both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic, from which the highest points of the chain are some 25 miles distant, such as the Potenza (
Flosis), Chienti (
Cluentus), Tenna (
Tinna), Tronto (
Truentus), Tordino (
Helvinus), Vomano (
Vomanus), &c. The
Pescara (
Aternus), which receives the Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the
Sangro.
The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from
Rome to Castelammare Adriatico via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows the valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the
Via Salaria,
Via Caecilia and Via Valeria-Claudia all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast. The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini, or Volscian mountains, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri.
Southern Apennines
In the southern Apennines, to the south of the
Sangro valley, the three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese, the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto (6725 feet). The chief rivers on the south-west are the
Liri or Garigliano (anc.
Liris)} with its tributary the Sacco (
Trerus), the Volturno (
Volturnus), Sebeto (
Sabatus), Sarno (
Sarnus), on the north the Trigno (
Trinius), Biferno (
Tifernus), and Fortore (
Frento).
The promontory of
Monte Gargano, on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the
Campanian
volcanic arc near
Naples. The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from
Sulmona to
Benevento and on to
Avellino, and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to
Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera and Avellino to Rocchetta S. Antonio, the junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and
Taranto) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the
Via Appia ran from
Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to
Brindisi, while the Via Traiana ran nearly to
Foggia and thence to Bari.
The valley of the
Ofanto (
Aufidus), which runs into the Adriatic close to
Barletta, marks the northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and
Basento(on the east)-which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via
Potenza to Metapontojoined by the Negro (
Tanager) and Calore (
Calor)--on the west, and the Bradano (
Bradanus), Basento (
Casuentus), Agri (
Aciris), Sinni (
Siris) on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 40 miles.
The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia, a branch of the Via Traiana, ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum. At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile (
Sybaris) and Crati (
Crathis) flow to the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria (anc.
Bruttii) begin.
The first group extends as far as the
isthmus formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is 6330 feet (the Botte Donato). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied the Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from S. Eufemia to
Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian peninsula, culminating in the
Aspromonte (6420 feet) to the east of
Reggio di Calabria. In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant.
The Apennines are to some extent clothed with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times (
Pliny mentions especially pine, oak and beech woods,
Hist. Nat. xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at
reforestation have been made by the government, much remains to be done.
They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the
Abruzzi: Pliny (
Hist. Nat. xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the forests
wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; bears, however, which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor are the wild goats called
rotae, spoken of by
Marcus Terentius Varro (
Rerum rusticarum II. i. 5), which may have been either
chamois or
steinbock, to be found.
Brigandage]appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the remoter parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently: an inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an
evocatus Augusti (a member of a picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet (G. Henzen in
Römische Mitteilungen, 1887, 14).
Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good
mineral springs, some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca, Monte Catini, Monsummano, Porretta, Telese), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini, Cinciano, &c.), the water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water elsewhere.
The Apennines are the continuation of the Alpine chain, but the individual zones of the
Alps cannot be traced into the Apennines. The zone of the Brianconnais may be followed as far as the
Gulf of Genoa, but scarcely beyond, unless it is represented by the
Trias and older beds of the Apuan Alps. The inner zone of
crystalline and
schistose rocks which forms the main chain of the Alps, is absent in the Apennines except towards the southern end.
The Apennines, indeed, consist almost entirely of
Mesozoic and
Tertiary beds, like the outer zones of the Alps. Remnants of a former inner zone of more ancient rocks may be seen in the Apuan Alps, in the islands off the Tuscan coast; in the Catena Metallifera, Cape Circeo and the island of
Zannone, as well as in the
Calabrian peninsula. These remnants lie at a comparatively low level, and excepting the Apuan Alps and the Calabrian peninsula do not now form any part of the Apennine chain.
But that in Tertiary times there was a high interior zone of crystalline rocks is indicated by the character of the
Eocene beds in the southern Apennines. These are formed to a large extent of thick conglomerates which are full of pebbles and boulders of
granite and
schist. Many of the boulders are of considerable size and they are often still angular. There is now no crystalline region from which they could reach their present position; and this and other considerations have led the followers of
Eduard Suess to conclude that even in Tertiary times a large land mass consisting of ancient rocks occupied the space which is now covered by the southern portion of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
This old land mass has been called
Tyrrhenis, and probably extended from
Sicily into
Latium and as far west as
Sardinia. On the Italian border of this land there was raised a mountain chain with an inner crystalline zone and an outer zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds. Subsequent
faulting has caused the subsidence of the greater part of Tyrrhenis, including nearly the whole of the inner zone of the mountain chain, and has left only the outer zones standing as the present Apennines.
Be this as it may, the Apennines, excepting in Calabria, are formed chiefly of
Triassic,
Jurassic,
Cretaceous, Eocene and
Miocene beds. In the south the deposits, from the Trias to the middle Eocene, consist mainly of
limestones, and were laid down, with a few slight interruptions, upon a quietly subsiding sea-floor. In the later part of the Eocene period began the folding which gave rise to the existing chain. The sea grew shallow, the deposits became conglomeratic and shaly, volcanic eruptions began, and the present folds of the Apennines were initiated.
The folding and consequent elevation went on until the close of the Miocene period when a considerable
subsidence took place and the Pliocene sea overspread the lower portions of the range. Subsequent elevation, without folding, has raised these Pliocene deposits to a considerable height--in some cases over 3000 feet and they now lie almost undisturbed upon the older folded beds. This last elevation led to the formation of numerous lakes which are now filled up by
Pleistocene deposits. Both volcanic eruptions and movements of elevation and depression continue to the present day on the shores of the
Tyrrhenian Sea.
In the northern Apennines the elevation of the sea floor appears to have begun at an earlier period, for the
Upper Cretaceous of that part of the chain consists largely of sandstones and conglomerates. In Calabria the chain consists chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks; it is the Mesozoic and Tertiary zone which has here been sunk beneath the sea. Similar rocks are found beneath the Trias farther north, in some of the valleys of Basilicata.
Glaciers no longer exist in the Apennines, but Post-Pliocene
moraines have been observed in Basilicata.
The
Appenines traverse
Italy in a direction from about north-north-east to south-south-west, almost precisely parallel to that of the coast of the
Adriatic from
Rimini to
Pescara. Major mountains in the range include:
*
Corno Grande 2,912 m (9,554 ft)
*Monte Nerone (5010 ft)
*Monte Catria (5590 ft)
*Monte Maggio
*Monte
Pennino (5169 ft)
*Monte della Sibilla (7663 ft)
*Monte Vettore (8128 ft)
*Pizzo di Sevo (7945 ft)
*Monte Amara (9170 ft)
*Monte Terminillo (7278 ft)
*Monte Velino (8192 ft)
In the Italian Campaign of
World War II, the Germans used the Apennines as a defensive barrier known to the Allies as the
Gothic Line. The Allies attacked the line unsuccessfully in September
1944.
Another line of defence, the
Barbara Line, crossed the southern Apennines.
*G. de Lorenzo, "Studi di geologia nell' Appennino Meridionale,"
Atti d. R. Accad. d. Sci, Fis. e Mat., Napoli, ser. 2, vol. viii., no. 7 (1896)
*F. Sacco, "L' Appennino settentrionale,"
Boll. Soc. geol. Ital. (1893-1899).
