Architecture
Architecture (from
Latin,
architectura and ultimately from
Greek,
αρχιτεκτων, "a master builder", from
αρχι- "chief, leader" and
τεκτων, "builder, carpenter") is the
art and
science of
designing buildings and
structures.
A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of
town planning,
urban design, and
landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating
furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and
cost for the
builder, as well as function and
aesthetics for the
user.
In modern usage, architecture is the
art and
discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or
system. The term can be used to connote the
implied architecture of abstract things such as
music or
mathematics, the
apparent architecture of natural things, such as
geological formations or the
structure of biological cells, or explicitly
planned architectures of human-made things such as
software,
computers,
enterprises, and
databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a
subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the
user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the
elements or
components of some kind of
structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.
Planned architecture often
manipulates space,
volume,
texture,
light,
shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing
aesthetics. This distinguishes it from
applied science or
engineering, which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures.
In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a
hospital or a
stadium, to the apparently simpler, such as planning
residential houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political
symbols, and/or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built environments in which people live.
According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject,
Vitruvius'
De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core principles:
Firmness,
Commodity, and
Delight; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern-day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural, and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic, psychological, and cultural ones.
Architecture is an
interdisciplinary field, drawing upon
mathematics,
science,
art,
technology,
social sciences,
politics,
history, and
philosophy. Vitruvius states:
"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts." He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as
music and
astronomy.
Philosophy is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an
architect to their subject is often called their philosophy.
Rationalism,
empiricism,
structuralism,
poststructuralism, and
phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture.
Architecture and buildings
 |
Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, possibly the most famous representation of Eastern European dome-like architechure |
The difference between architecture and building is a subject matter that has engaged the attention of many. According to
Nikolaus Pevsner,
European historian of the early twentieth century, "A bicycle shed is a building,
Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture." This distinction, however, is not a clear one, and contemporary scholarship is showing that all buildings, cathedrals and bicycle sheds alike, are part of a single continuum that characterizes the built world.
Architecture is also the art of designing the built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, window treatments and borders may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and
bicycle lanes may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.
Architecture first
evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available
building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a
craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed
Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
Early human settlements were essentially
rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into
urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the
supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as
Iran architecture and
urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.
However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the
Greek and the
Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient
China and
Vaastu Shastra in ancient
India. In
Europe in the
Classical and
Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous.
Guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the seventh century
CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from
Morocco and
Spain to
Turkey,
Iran and
Pakistan. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region.
With the
Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects -
Michaelangelo,
Brunelleschi,
Leonardo da Vinci - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between
artist,
architect and
engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as
engineering and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of
aesthetics. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century
Ecole des Beaux Arts in
France, the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context.
Meanwhile, the
Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to
Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the
Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of
industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the
Bauhaus school, founded in
Germany in 1919, consciously rejected
history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an
avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Modernist architects sought to reduce buildings to a pure form, removing historical references in favor of purely functional structures. The columns, arches, and gargoyles of Classical architecture were dubbed unnecessary. Buildings that flaunted their construction, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as
Mies van der Rohe worked to reject virtually all that had come before, trading handcrafted details and sentimental historic forms for a machine-driven architectural geometry made possible by the
Industrial Revolution.
Many people saw Modernism as dull or even ugly. As the founders of the
International Style lost influence,
Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the purity of Modernism.
Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The
Design Methodology Movement involving people such as
Chris Jones,
Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-orientated designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many, sometimes the leader, sometimes not. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today one style, tomorrow maybe something else.
#
Online Etymology of the term "architect"# Translation of
firmitatis utilitatis venustatis [
1] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [
2].
*
- Tolomeus - Art around you Architecture VR panoramas by Tolomeus
* Architectural Practice Directories
**
ArchitectsIndex - Directory of UK Architects along with work examples* Reference
**
Archinect - Architecture news, jobs, discussions, features, etc. Updated daily since 1997 **
Archinform - International Architecture Database **
Architecture.com - Courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects**
Architypes - Wiki of architecture design principles and patterns**
Archpedia - architecture encyclopedia**
Glossary of Architecture - Residential**
Danda - News and reviews on architecture**
RE. Design and architecture news**
ArchiQuotes - Gallery of Architectural Quotations**
TerritorioScuola ODP - Architecture Resources * Professional organizations
**
American Institute of Architects**
Boston Society of Architects**
New Zealand Institute of Architects**
The Pritzker Architecture Prize**
Royal Australian Institute of Architects**
Royal Institute of British Architects**
Society of Architectural Historians**
Society of Architectural Historians Australia and New Zealand**
Architects' Association of Israel * Buildings and structures (
refer to :
:Category:Buildings and structures)
**
Cities and Buildings Database - From the University of Washington**
Cupola - Building and Structure Photo Galleries**
Emporis Buildings - Free Building Database**
Galinsky - People enjoying buildings worldwide**
Global Architecture Encyclopedia - Glass Steel and Stone**
Great Buildings Collection**
Vitruvio* Regional architectures
**
Barcelona Architecture - Catalan architecture and catalan architects**
University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections " Dearborn-Massar Photographs Over 1200 images chosen from a group of approximately 6000 photographic prints representing the work of some of the most well known architects in the Pacific Northwest.
