Christianity
Christianity is a
monotheistic[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm "Monotheism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XCopyright © 1911 by Robert Appleton Company Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. Knight; "From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process" 2nd edition, Albright, William F., 1957; "Radical Monotheism and Western Culture", Niebuhr, H. Richard, (1960); http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/monotheisticreligions/ Monotheistic Religion resources, ©2006 About, Inc., A part of The New York Times Company. All rights reserved; "God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism", Jonathan Kirsch, 2004; http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=052178655X&ss=exc "An Introduction to Christianity", Linda Woodhead, 2004; http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html Monotheism, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2006, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.; http://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html "monotheism", The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy Third Edition, Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, James Trefil, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002 ; http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm "New Dictionary of Theology", "Paul", David F. Wright, Sinclair B. Ferguson, J.I. Packer, pg. 496-499 ; Meconi, David Vincent "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity (review)"Journal of Early Christian Studies - Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2000, pp. 111-112 ] religion centered on
Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the
New Testament.
[Princeton University. "Christianity" at Dictionary.com, Christianity, WordNet ® 2.0, Princeton University, retrieved May 18, 2006.] Christians believe Jesus to be the
Messiah, and thus refer to him as Jesus
Christ. With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents in 2001, Christianity is the world's largest
religion.
[Religions by Adherents Adherents.com.] It is the predominant religion in the
Americas,
Europe,
Oceania, and large parts of
Africa.
Christianity began in the 1st century as a Jewish
sect[Acts: ; ; ; ; ; ; Romans: ; Tacitus Annales xv 44; Flavius Josephus Antiquities xviii 3; ]
The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, editors in chief R. J. Zwi Werblowsky and G. Wigoder (published OUP New York, 1997; ISBN 0-19-508605-8), page 158. , and therefore shares many
religious texts and early history with
Judaism — specifically, the
Hebrew Bible, which Christians call the
Old Testament (
see Judeo-Christian). Like
Judaism and
Islam, Christianity is considered an
Abrahamic religion.
According to the
New Testament (), "the
disciples were first called Christians in
Antioch." (
Greek and variant ,
Strong's G5546). The earliest recorded use of the term
Christianity (Greek ) is by
Ignatius of Antioch, such as in his
Letter to the Magnesians 10 (68-107)
[Walter Bauer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2ed., 1979].
Within Christianity, there are numerous distinct
traditions,
denominations, and
church bodies, many with various
doctrinal differences related to culture and place. The 2001 edition of
World Christian Encyclopedia estimates that there are 33,830 Christian denominations. Since the
Reformation, Christianity is usually represented as being
divided into three main branches:
*
Roman Catholicism: The
Roman Catholic Church, the largest single body, which includes several
Eastern Catholic communities and totals more than 1 billion baptized members.
(Not part of the Catholic Church but closely related are certain smaller communities, e.g., the
Old-Catholics.)
*
Eastern Christianity:
Oriental Orthodox Churches, the
Assyrian Church of the East, and the
Eastern Orthodox Churches (including
Western Orthodox churches which preserve Latin practices while accepting Orthodox theology), with a combined membership of more than 300 million baptized members.
*
Protestantism: Numerous denominations and groups such as
Anglicans,
Lutherans,
Reformed/
Presbyterians,
Evangelical,
Charismatic,
Baptists,
Methodists,
Nazarenes,
Anabaptists, and
Pentecostals. The oldest of these separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century
Protestant Reformation, followed in many cases by further divisions. Some Protestants identify themselves simply as
Christian, or
born-again Christian. Others, particularly among Anglicans and in
Neo-Lutheranism, identify themselves as being
"both Catholic
and Protestant". Worldwide total ranges from 592 to 650 million.
Other Christian denominations and churches which distance themselves from the above classifications and some of their major beliefs claim around 275 million members. These include
African indigenous churches with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely),
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also called
Mormons) with more than 12 million members
[Christianity (2005) Adherents.com.],
Jehovah's Witnesses with approximately 6.6 million members
[Witness Membership 2005.], and the
Unity Church, with approximately 2 million members.
[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_653.html].In addition to official denominations, break-away sects, orthodox movements within denominations and sects, and heretical movements, there is also a wide variety of extra-church groups associated with Christianity.
|
The historical development of major church branches from their roots. |
|
Jesus' crucifixion as portrayed by Diego Velázquez. Jesus' life, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the basis of Christianity. |
Within Christianity there exists a significant diversity of beliefs. Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology. This mainstream has come about as a result of the need to respond constructively to dissenting views.
Orthodoxy is an ongoing response to
heterodoxy and
heresy.
Monotheism
Christianity adopted from Judaism a belief in the existence of a single
God (
YHWH) who created the
universe and has
divine power over it.
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm "Monotheism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume X;From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process, 2nd edition, Albright, William F., 1957; Radical Monotheism and Western Culture, Niebuhr, H. Richard, (1960); http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/monotheisticreligions/ Monotheistic Religion resources; God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism, Jonathan Kirsch, 2004; http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/religion/monotheism.htm "Monotheism and Polytheism" historyforkids.org, Karen Carr, Associate Professor of History, Portland State University; http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=052178655X&ss=exc An Introduction to Christianity, Linda Woodhead, 2004; http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html Monotheism, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia; http://www.livingwaters.com/statementoffaith.shtml Living Waters Ministry statement of faith, Living Waters Publications, Ray Comfort ; http://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html "monotheism", The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy Third Edition, Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, James Trefil, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002 ; http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm "New Dictionary of Theology", "Paul", David F. Wright, Sinclair B. Ferguson, J.I. Packer, pg. 496-499 ; Meconi, David Vincent "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity (review)", Journal of Early Christian Studies, Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2000, pp. 111-112] The understanding of God is modified and expanded in the light of other Christian beliefs about the
divinity of Christ and the nature of God as a
Holy Trinity,
[T. Desmond Alexander, Brian S. Rosner, D. A. Carson, Graeme Goldsworthy, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology (InterVarsity Press, 2000), pp. 514-515; Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology (Blackwell, 2000 edt.), p. 61.] which in brief considers that the three
persons of God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) together form a single
substance of God. Due to this some consider the Christian definition of monotheism to be unique
[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/trinity.htm] and believe some attempts at understanding the nature of God and the interrelationship of his attributes have led Christians towards implicit
polytheism.
[http://jts.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/57/1/133] Christians explicitly deny holding such a view of God and consider monotheism a central tenet of Christianity.
[Kelly James Clark. "Trinity or Tritheism" (pdf), Virtual Library of Christian Philosophy, Philosophy Department, Calvin College, retrieved May 18, 2006. Donald K. McKim, ed., Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (John Knox Press, 1996), p. 288: "tritheism (Lat. "three gods") Belief in three separate and individual gods. Some early formulations by Christian theologians were considered to move in this direction. Early Christian apologists sought to defend the faith from charges of belief in three gods."] All Christian creeds affirm that there is only one God (e.g.,
Nicene Creed,
Athanasian Creed, and
Chalcedonian Creed).
Messiah
The title
Messiah comes from the
Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (
mashiakh) meaning
the anointed one, for which the Greek translation is (
Christos), the source of the English word
Christ.
Christians identify Jesus as the Messiah. This view holds that Jesus' coming was the
fulfilment of
Old Testament prophecy and the inauguration of
God's Kingdom: Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior not only of the Jewish people, but of all humankind.
Jesus as God and Man
Most Christians believe that Jesus is "true God and true man" (or fully divine and fully human). Jesus is believed to have become
fully human in all respects, including
mortality, and to have suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man, yet without having sinned. From being true God he was capable of breaking the bonds of death and rising up again through what is known as the resurrection. The
Chalcedonian Creed (which is not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox Churches) defined this as Christ having "two natures in one person", a doctrine known to theologians as
hypostatic union (see
Christology).
Holy Trinity
Most Christians believe that God is one single eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons:
God the Father, God the Son (
Jesus), and God the
Holy Spirit (or
Holy Ghost). Christians generally believe that the three
persons of the Trinity together form a single
substance of God.
Salvation
Most Christians believe that
salvation from
sin and
death is available through belief in the person and work of Jesus as
savior (
John 3:16; ). It is generally believed that Jesus made an
atoning sacrifice, completed with his death on the cross, and thereby paid for the sins of mankind (). Christians further believe that
justification and
sanctification are made possible through this sacrifice (). Most Christians consider salvation through Jesus to be an unearned gift from God through his
divine grace (), though many Christians, particularly
Roman Catholics, see good works
James 2:20 as important or even as necessary ().
Christian denominations have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how salvation is obtained, sometimes including a personal acceptance of Jesus as savior.
Crucifixion and Resurrection
Most Christians believe that Jesus
died on the Cross,
rose from the dead, and
ascended into Heaven after appearing to his
apostles, and about five hundred other people. The existence of this large group of witnesses is cited as support for the resurrection as a historical event.
Second Coming
Most Christians believe in the
General Resurrection, in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the
end of time, to be
judged by Christ when He returns to fulfill the rest of
Messianic prophecy.
The Afterlife
Christian views of the
afterlife generally involve
heaven and
hell. These realms are thought to be eternal. Catholicism includes with these the transitory realm of
purgatory whose denizens, dying in a state of sin but nonetheless assured of salvation, reside for a period of time to undergo purification before entering into heaven. There is, however, some debate on this point within
Eastern Christianity.
Traditional Christian theology teaches there will be a General Resurrection, with the
soul continuing consciousness after death until the resurrection of the physical body and the Last Judgement.
[ See, e.g., Aquinas, the Summa Theologicum, Suplementum Tertiae Partis, questions 69 through 99; and Calvin, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25.] A minority believe that only the righteous will be resurrected, and that the unrighteous will be annihilated (see
Annihilationism), while a further minority believe in
universal salvation.
Virtually all Christian traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as
prayer, Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle. This lifestyle includes not only obedience to the
Ten Commandments, as interpreted by Christ (as in the
Sermon on the Mount), but also love for one's neighbour in both attitude and action —
whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love toward God; it includes obedience to such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the
Holy Spirit who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection, they die with him to sin and can be resurrected with him to new life.
Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven
sacraments. These include
baptism,
confirmation or
Chrismation, the
Eucharist (
communion),
penance and reconciliation,
Anointing of the Sick,
Holy Orders, and
matrimony. Many Protestant groups, following
Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and Eucharist), but not usually the other five in the same way.
Anabaptist and
Brethren groups would add
feet washing.
Pentecostal,
Charismatic, and
Holiness Churches emphasize "
gifts of the Spirit" such as
spiritual healing,
prophecy,
exorcism, and
speaking in tongues. These emphases are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The
Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.
Some Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.
Weekly worship services
Justin Martyr (
First Apology, chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus::And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.
Justin's description, which applies to some extent to most church services today, alludes to the following components:
*Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a
lectionary.
*A
sermon. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this may occur later in the service, although in liturgical churches the sermon still often follows the readings.
* Congregational
prayer and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of
hymns. The
Lord's Prayer is especially likely to be recited.
*The
Eucharist (also called
Holy Communion, the Sacrament, or the
Lord's Supper)—a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are
consecrated and then consumed. Some Christians say these
represent the body and blood of Christ, whereas Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and many Anglicans say that they
become or
are the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the
Real Presence). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while some Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restrictions on who may partake, and visitors should ask about this before attempting to join in. Communion is not generally permitted to non-members in Catholic and Orthodox churches, and some Protestant churches invite visitors to participate only by prior arrangement with the minister. Even members may be subject to restrictions: for example, only Roman Catholics free from unconfessed
mortal sin are eligible to receive Communion, though in practice it is rare for the Eucharist to be denied to any Catholic; Orthodox communicants are expected to make confession of sins and fast before communion; and in some Protestant churches, members must give notice to the minister or elders of an intent to take communion. Some denominations substitute grape juice for wine, while the
Latter-day Saints use water for their weekly Sacrament.
*A "collection", "offering", or "tithe" in which the people are asked to contribute funds. One common method is to pass a
collection plate for contributions. Other methods are more private where donations are given out of the view of others. Christians traditionally use these funds not only for general upkeep of the church, but also for
charitable work of various types.
The structure of a service may vary because of special events like baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend
Sunday school. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the
Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the biblical
Sabbath), not Sunday, the day of Christ's
resurrection.
Charismatic or
Pentecostal congregations strive to follow the Holy Spirit and may spontaneously be moved to action rather than follow a formal order of service. At Quaker meetings, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble
concerts more than liturgy, with
rock and pop music, dancing, and use of
multimedia. Some denominations do not meet on a weekly basis, but form smaller cell groups within the church which meet weekly at peoples' homes, and gather together fortnightly or monthly for a larger celebration.
In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones) the service is led by a
priest. In others (mainly among Protestants) there is a
minister,
preacher, or
pastor. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. A division is often made between "
High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "
Low" services, at which a more casual atmosphere prevails even if the service in question is liturgical in nature, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship.
In Orthodox churches the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for members who are unable to). Many Protestant churches follow a pattern in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (to the sermon). Roman Catholics tend to do the same, though standing for formal prayer is more common. Others services are less programmed and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated and often involves a
choir and/or
organ. Some churches use only
a cappella music, either on principle (many
Churches of Christ object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
In many
nondenominational Christian churches, as well as many Protestant denominations, there is usually a
worship music portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of
hymns,
praise and worship music or
psalms. Many churches believe that worship is important as it demonstrates a Christian's love for God and the sacrifice that was made for them.
A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship", which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of
charismatic renewal within Churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the
Charismatic Episcopal Church.
Holidays
Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a
liturgical calendar with various holidays. These calendars include feast days (where special worship services are held, to mark a special anniversary) as well as days of
fasting. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast. The Armenian Apostolic church celebrates its christmas on January 6. The best-known fasting period is
Lent.
Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating
Christmas and
Easter, despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays and may object to the apparent pagan origins of Christmas and Easter.
Symbols
The best-known Christian symbol is the
cross, of which many varieties exist. Several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the
crucifix for Catholics, the
crux orthodoxa for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the
ichthys ("fish") symbol or, in ancient times, an
anchor, as well as the
chi-rho. In a modern Roman alphabet, the Chi-Rho appears like a large
P with an
X overlaid on the lower stem. They are the first two Greek letters of the word Christ - Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ), and the symbol is the one that is said to have appeared to
Constantine prior to converting to Christianity (see History and origins section below).
Nicene Creed
The
Nicene Creed, originally formulated at the Councils of
Nicaea and
Constantinople, was ratified as the universal creed of
Christendom by the
Council of Ephesus in 431. Eastern Orthodox Christians do not include the
Filioque clause, which the Roman Catholic church added later.
Central Christian beliefs put forth in the Nicene Creed include:
* The
Trinity;
*
Jesus is both
God and man;
*
Salvation is available through the person, life and death of
Jesus Christ;
* The
virgin birth,
crucifixion,
resurrection,
ascension, and
Second Coming of
Jesus;
*
One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church;
* The forgiveness of
sins through
baptism;
* The
resurrection of the dead and the
Last Judgement by Christ.
The Nicene Creed directly addresses beliefs the council deemed as heretical, primarily
Arianism, which denied that the Father and the Son were "of one being" (
ὁμοὐσιος), but also earlier heresies like
Gnosticism.
Most Protestant churches follow the Roman Catholic church in accepting Nicene doctrine.
Scriptures
Authority and different parts of the Bible
Most Christian churches regard the
Bible, including the
Old Testament[While sharing the Hebrew scriptures or "Old Testament", different versions and sects of Christianity however, disagree among each other over virually all points of the texts, and in particular the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice in light of the New Testament.] and the
New Testament, as authoritative.
[Princeton University. "Christianity" at Dictionary.com, Christianity, Princeton University, retrieved May 18, 2006.] Differences exist in the
canons of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the
Deuterocanonical books used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches but rejected by Protestants as
Apocrypha. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly.
The
New Church or
Swedenborgian view of which scripture is to be included in canon is distinctly different from every other Christian institution. The belief held is that some of the books of the Bible have a continuous internal sense or
correspondence, while others do not. Those which are seen to have direct correspondence with spiritual truth are viewed as the Word of God, the remaining are then seen as useful books for the Church, some of which are flawed in their understanding, such as the epistles of Paul.
Most Christians regard the
Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include
missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by
Gideons International,
Wycliffe Bible Translators,
Jehovah's Witnesses and others.
Interpretation
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus exists on the crucial matter of its interpretation, or
exegesis, an issue which dates to ancient times.
The earliest schools of Biblical interpretation were the Alexandrine, and the
Antiochene. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by
Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation insisted on the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.
Traditional Catholic and Orthodox interpretation admits four senses of Scripture. The literal sense is the plain meaning (which would still take account of figures of speech), so that a reference to
David means the historical figure. The
allegorical or typological sense teaches Christian doctrine, so that a reference to David may mean Christ. The tropological or moral sense contains ethical teaching, and the anagogical or
eschatological sense teaches about the Last Things. The meanings derived from the three non-literal senses may also be stated literally elsewhere.
Protestantism rejects the elevation of other senses to the same level as the literal, although typology remains fairly common in Protestant interpretation.
There is today an incredible variety of methods for interpreting the Bible. Exegesis as an academic pursuit places scripture in its historical, cultural, and literary context to gain a deeper understanding of the situation to which it was originally addressed and to elucidate the depth and essential truths of scripture.
Other books held sacred
Some Christians hold additional writings to be inspired
scripture. The
Latter Day Saints hold three additional books to be the inspired word of God:
The Book of Mormon,
Doctrine and Covenants, the
Pearl of Great Price and revelations given to the prophet of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Other works considered sacred but not held to be scripture are the works of
Ellen G. White for the
Seventh-day Adventists. "Christian Scientists" regard
Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures by
Christian Science founder
Mary Baker Eddy as an inspired interpretive work which places her, for her followers, in the same rank as
Luther or
Calvin for theirs. Members of the
New Church, better known as
Swedenborgians, believe the Lord has revealed Himself in what they call the Word of the Second Coming, which is thought to be the Lord's revelation of all those things which He promised to reveal in His Second Advent.
After the time of Jesus, Christian
Gnostics were very active and maintained several additional books of scripture outside of what was later to become canon; examples include the
Gospel of Thomas, the
Gospel of Mary Magdalene, the
Gospel of Philip, and the
Gospel of Judas. However, the Gnostics were considered by the other Christians, even in their own time, to be heretics, thus many denominations have rejected these other "gospels".
Nonetheless, the majority of Christians hold only the Bible to be sacred. The elevation of other writings to the same level as orthodox scriptures forms a major divergence between some groups and mainstream Christians.
Christianity
[The name given by the Greeks or Romans, probably in reproach, to the followers of Jesus. It was first used at Antioch. The names by which the disciples wereknown among themselves were "brethren," "the faithful," "elect," "saints," and"believers". But as distinguishing them from the multitude without, the name"Christian" came into use, and was universally accepted. This name occurs butthree times in the New Testament (Acts 11:26; 26:28; 1 Pet. 4:16). Source: Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary] began within the Jewish religion among the followers of
Jesus of Nazareth. Under the leadership of the Apostles
Peter and
Paul, it welcomed
Gentiles, and gradually separated from
Pharisaic Judaism.
Some
Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own, while others were joined with Gentile Christians in the development of the church; within both groups there existed great diversity of belief. Professor
Bentley Layton writes, "the lack of uniformity in ancient Christian scripture in the early period is very striking, and it points to the substantial diversity within the Christian religion." A church
hierarchy seems to have developed by the time of the
Pastoral Epistles (
1 Tim 3,
Titus 1) and was certainly formalized by the 4th century
[See the canons of the Council of Nicaea, especially canon 6.].
Christianity spread across the
Mediterranean Basin, enduring
persecution by the Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into increased contact with
Hellenistic culture;
Greek philosophy, especially
Neoplatonism, became a significant influence on Christian thought through theologians such as
Origen. Scholars differ on the extent to which the developing Christian faith adopted identifiably
pagan beliefs.
[Pagan context (Christianity) Religionfacts.com. URL accessed on July 3 2006.] |
An icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea |
Theological diversity led to disputes about the correct interpretation of Christian teaching and to conflict within and between the local churches. Bishops and local synods condemned some theologians as
heretics and defined Church views as orthodoxy (Greek: "the right view"), in contrast to what they deemed heresy (from Greek "faction" or "(wrong) choice"). The most notable heretics were
Christian Gnostics. Other early sects deemed heretical included
Marcionism,
Ebionitism and
Montanism. Following Christianity's
legalization such disputes intensified.
Ecumenical councils, beginning with the
Council of Nicaea, called by Constantine in 325, were held to debate theological issues and reach clearer dogmatic definitions, thereby restoring unity.
In the
4th century, after the persecution by Emperor
Diocletian, Christianity finally attained legal recognition. His successor
Galerius, who had been the instigator of the persecution, issued an edict of toleration on his death-bed in
311, that however had only a temporary effect. In
312, Emperor
Constantine, himself newly converted to Christianity, affirmed the religions legal status and went on to give the church a privileged place in society, which it retained apart from a brief pagan interlude 361-363 under
Julian the Apostate. In 391
Theodosius I established
Nicene Christianity as the official and, except for
Judaism, only legal religion of the
Roman Empire. From Constantine onwards, the history of Christianity becomes difficult to untangle from the history of Europe (see also
Christendom). The Church took over many of the political and cultural roles of the pagan Roman institutions, especially in Europe. The Emperors, seeking unity through the new religion, frequently took part in Church matters, sometimes in concord with the bishops but also against them. Imperial authorities acted to suppress the old
pagan cults and groups deemed
heretical by the Church, most notably,
Arians. The
Catholic Encyclopedia notes that "various penal laws were enacted by the Christian emperors against heretics as being guilty of crime against the State. In both the
Theodosian and
Justinian codes they were styled infamous persons ... In some particularly aggravated cases sentence of
death was pronounced upon heretics, though seldom executed in the time of the Christian emperors of Rome."
[Catholic Encyclopedia]Various forms of Christian
monasticism developed, with the organization of the first monastic communities being attributed to the hermit
St Anthony of Egypt around 300. The monastic life spread to many parts of the Christian empire during the 4th and 5th centuries, as many felt that the Christian moral and spiritual life was compromised by the change from a persecuted minority group to an established majority religion, and sought to regain the purity of early faith by fleeing society.
Outside of Rome, neighbouring countries had already made Christianity their official religion -
Armenia, which became the first Christian kingdom in 301, and
Aksum ca. 330. The Goths were converted by Bishop
Ulfilas to the
Arian Church around 350, and other earlier Christian states included the
Ghassanids (from 3rd century) and
Osroene.
Within the Roman Empire, the Church tightened its administration along Roman lines, creating larger units presided over by Metropolits and Patriarchs. The Council of Nicea recognizes as special the
Pope of Rome, the Patriarch of
Alexandria and of
Antioch, to which later were added the
Patriarch of Constantinople (in
381) and the
Patriarch of Jerusalem (in
451). This system of five sees was later dubbed the
Pentarchy.
The Roman Empire was linguistically divided into the Latin-speaking west, centered in
Rome, and the Greek-speaking east, centered in
Constantinople. (There were also significant communities in
Egypt and
Syria.) Outside the Empire, Christianity was adopted in
Armenia,
Caucasian Iberia (now
Georgia),
Ethiopia,
Persia,
India, and among the
Celtic tribes. During the
Migration Period, various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first
Arianism was widespread (as among
Goths and
Vandals), but later
Roman Catholicism prevailed, beginning with the
Franks. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted
Orthodox Christianity, as in the
Baptism of Kievan Rus' (988) in Rus' (present-day Russia and Ukraine). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in the
Great Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which formally divided
Christendom into the Catholic west and the Orthodox east.
From the
7th century, Christianity was challenged by
Islam, which quickly conquered the
Middle East,
North Africa, and
Spain. Numerous military struggles followed, including the
Crusades, the Spanish
Reconquista and the eventual
conquest of the Byzantine Empire and southeastern
Europe by the
Turks.
Western Christianity in the
Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the
Pope, and by the development of
scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The
Roman Catholic Church managed to
renew itself at the
Council of Trent (1545–1563), but only after
Martin Luther published his
95 theses in 1517. This was one of the key events of the
Protestant Reformation which led to the emergence of
Christian denominations. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states, while many Orthodox Christians found themselves living under Muslim rulers.
Partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European
Enlightenment took hold, Christianity was confronted with the discoveries of science (including the
heliocentric model and the theory of
evolution), and with the development of
biblical criticism (linked to the development of
Christian Fundamentalism) and modern political ideologies such as
Liberalism,
Nationalism and
Socialism. In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of
Ecumenism and the
Charismatic Movement.
(For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and culture, see
Christian philosophy,
Christian art,
Christian literature,
Christian music,
Christian architecture.)
Main articles: Persecution of Christians, Historical persecution by ChristiansChristians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and frequently persecuted in the
Roman Empire. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal, and, especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects (the Jews only excepted) sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity — a practice that Christianity (along with Judaism) rejected. Persecution in the Roman Empire ended with the
Edict of Milan, but it persisted or even intensified in other places, such as
Sassanid Persia, and under
Islam.
Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, have destroyed
pagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopher
Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations, and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into
religious wars and
inquisitions.
Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America. The degree to which these acts are supported by formal Christian doctrine and scripture is a topic of much debate.
There was some persecution of Christians after the
French Revolution during the attempted
Dechristianisation of France.
State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as in
Muslim states), or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting state
atheism (as in
North Korea). For example, the
People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressed
house churches or underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed in
Saudi Arabia. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today.
Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States and the ongoing "troubles" in
Northern Ireland as examples of "persecution by Christians" , despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. [
1][
2][
3][
4] Complaints of
discrimination have also been made of and by Christians in various other contexts. In other parts of the world, there are persecution of Christians by dominant religious groups or political groups. Many Christians are threatened, discriminated, jailed, or even killed for their faith.[
5][
6][
7][
8]
See also: Criticism of ChristianityThere are many controversies surrounding Christianity as to its influences and history.
*Some claim that Jesus of Nazareth may never have existed, arguing a lack of sources outside the New Testament and sometimes alleged similarities with pre-Christian cult figures (see
Jesus as myth). This view has not found general acceptance among historians or Bible scholars (see
Historicity of Jesus).
*Some argue that, because Christianity contains similarities to various
mystery religions, especially in relation to myths about a god or other figure who is said to have been killed and risen again, these may somehow have been an inspiration for Christianity. For example, Egyptologist
E. A. Wallis Budge compared Christianity to the cult of
Osiris.
. In some cases, initiates in a mystery religion are said to have shared in the god's death, and in his immortality through his resurrection.
[(Latourette p. 394)]*Some scholars consider
Paul rather than Jesus as the founding figure of Christianity, pointing to the extent of his writings and the scope of his missionary work.
*
Jews believe that followers of Christianity misinterpret passages from the
Old Testament, or
Tanakh. For example, adherants to Judaism believe that the reference to the coming Messiah in Daniel 9:25 was actually a reference to
Cyrus the Great who decreed the building of the
Second Temple.
[http://experts.about.com/q/Orthodox-Judaism-952/Daniel-9.htm]*Many
Muslims believe that the Christian Trinity is incompatible with
monotheism, even if it is not necessarily
tritheistic.
[Miller, Dr. Gary, A concise reply to Christianity.] *Missionary work has sometimes been considered a form of cultural imperialism, depending on the motivation and attitude of the missionary.
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