Civil society
Civil society refers to the totality of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions that form the basis of a functioning
society as opposed to the force-backed structures of a
state (regardless of that state's political system).
The modern usage of the term is often traced to
Adam Ferguson, who saw the development of a "commercial state" as a way to change the corrupt feudal order and strengthen the liberty of the individual.
[An Essay on the History of Civil Society, 1767] While Ferguson did not draw a line between the state and the society,
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a
German philosopher, made this distinction in his
Elements of the Philosophy of Right [ Etext of Philosophy of Right Hegel, 1827 (translated by Dyde, 1897) ]. In this work, civil society (
bürgerliche Gesellschaft in
German) was a stage on the
dialectical relationship between Hegel's perceived opposites, the macro-community of the
state and the micro-community of the
family [ Pelczynski, A.Z.; 1984; 'The Significane of Hegel's speration of the state and civil society' pp1-13 in Pelczynski, A.Z. (ed.); 1984; The State and Civil Society; Cambridge University Press ]. Broadly speaking, the term was split, like Hegel's followers, to the
political left and
right. On the left, it became the foundation for
Karl Marx's
bourgeois society [ ibid ]; to the right it became a description for all non-state aspects of society, expanding out of the
economic rigidity of
Marxism into
culture,
society and
politics [ ibid ]There are myriad definitions of
civil society. The
London School of Economics Centre for Civil Society working definition is illustrative:
Civil society refers to the arena of uncoerced collective action around shared interests, purposes and values. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family and market, though in practice, the boundaries between state, civil society, family and market are often complex, blurred and negotiated. Civil society commonly embraces a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in their degree of formality, autonomy and power. Civil societies are often populated by organisations such as registered charities, development non-governmental organisations, community groups, women's organisations, faith-based organisations, professional associations, trade unions, self-help groups, social movements, business associations, coalitions and advocacy groups. [ Copy of LSE's definition on the British Library's website ]The best short overview of the subject is
Civil Society by Michael Edwards (Polity Press).
The literature on links between civil society and democracy have their root in early liberal writings like those of
de Tocqueville. However they were developed in significant ways by 20th century theorists like
Gabriel Almond and
Sidney Verba, who identified the role of civil society in a democratic order as vital
[ Almond, G., & Verba, S.; 'The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes And Democracy In Five Nations; 1989; Sage].
They argued that the political element of many civil society organisations facilitates better awareness and a more informed citizenry, who make better voting choices, participate in Politics, and hold government to account better as a result
['ibid'].
More recently,
Robert Putnam has argued that even non-political organisations in civil society are vital for democracy. This is because they build
social capital, trust and shared values, which are transferred into the political sphere and help to hold society together, facilitating an understanding of the interconnectedness of society and interests within it
[ Putnam, R.; Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions In Modern Italy; 1993; Princeton].
Others, however, have questioned how democratic civil society actually is. Some have noted that the civil society actors have now obtained a remarkable amount of political
power without anyone directly electing or appointing them
[ Agnew, John; 2002; 'Democracy and Human Rights' in Johnston, R.J., Taylor, Peter J. and Watts, Michael J. (eds); 2002; Geographies of Global Change; Blackwell ].
The term civil society is currently often used by critics and activists as a reference to sources of resistance to and the domain of social life which needs to be protected against
globalization. This is because it is seen as acting beyond boundaries and across different territories
[ Mann, Michael; 1984; The Autonomous Power of The State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results; European Journal of Sociology 25: pp185-213 ]. However, as for civil society can, under many definitions, include those businesses and institutions who support
globalization, this is a contested use
[ United Nations: Partners in Civil Society ].
On the other hand others see
globalization as a social phenomenon bringing
classical liberal values which inevitably lead to a larger role for civil society at the expense to politically derived state institutions.
*
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
*
private voluntary organizations (PVOs)
*peoples' organizations
*community-based organizations
*Intermediary organizations for the voluntary and non-profit sector
*
community foundations* Community leadership development programs
*civic clubs
*
trade unions*gender, cultural, and religious groups
*
charities*social and sports clubs
*
cooperatives
*
environmental groups
*professional associations
*
academia*businesses
*policy institutions
*consumers/consumer organizations
*the
media*
citizens'
militia*religious organizations
*civic groups
*community organizations
*clubs
Whether all of these institutions are by definition part of civil society is up for debate. Neera Chandhoke, a scientist from India, thinks not. She concludes that only institutions that are critical of the state are the real thing, while the rest are merely not governmental The key here is that not every institution is a 'countervailing power' to the state. In
developing countries, civil society is popular with aid donors because it can make government behave in a better way. But mock civil society organisations can exist that serve only to gain access to
development aid .
*
Daniel Bell*
Robert N. Bellah*
Don E. Eberly*
Michael Edwards*
Jean Bethke Elshtain*
Amitai Etzioni*
Francis Fukuyama*
Peter Dobkin Hall*
Barry Dean Karl*
David Korten*
Kathleen McCarthy*
Frank Moulaert*
Michael O'Neill*
Elinor Ostrom*
Robert Putnam*
Nancy L. Rosenblum*
Lester M. Salamon*
Michael Sandel*
List of politics-related topics*
Civics*
Civilisation*
Mass society*
Non-governmental organizations**
NGOs in Consultative Status*
Open society*
Political science*
public administration*
Social capital*
social entrepreneurship*
social innovation*
Sociology*
Power*
Yearbook of International Organizations* Edwards, Michael.
Civil Society. Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2004. ISBN 0745631339.
* Alagappa, Muthiah.
Civil Society and Political Change in Asia. Stanford: Standford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0804720971
*
LSE Centre for Civil Society*
Civil Society in the Post-Communist Context: Linking Theoretical Concept and Social Transformation by Tanya Narozhna
*
The Western Concept of the Civil Society in the Context of Chinese History by
Thomas Metzger
