Eritrea

Eritrea is a country in northern East Africa. The name is derived from the Latin word for Red Sea, Mare Erythraeum. The country is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south and Djibouti in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country have an extensive coastline with the Red Sea across which lie Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands are part of Eritrea.

Eritrea was consolidated into a colony by the Italian government on January 1, 1890. Contemporary Eritrea gained its independence from Ethiopia after a thirty-year war which lasted from 1961 to 1991.

Eritrea is a single-party state. it is a multilingual and multicultural country with two dominant religions and nine nationalities, each speaking a different language. The country has no official language, but it has three working languages: Tigrinya, Arabic, and English. A fourth language, Italian, is sometimes used commercially. Les langues en Erythrée. Retrieved 18 July 2006"Country Profile:Eritrea. Library of Congress. Retrieved 18 July 2006

History

Eritrea's history is one of the longest in Africa, and may be one of the longest in the world. Together with Ethiopia and the south-eastern part of the Red Sea coast of Sudan, it is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru," meaning land of the Gods), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC.

The modern name is the Italian form of the Greek name ΕΡΥΘΡΑΙΑ (Erythraîa; see also List of traditional Greek place names), which derives from the Greek name for the Red Sea ().

Pre-colonial era

1913 sketch by the Deutche Aksum-Expedition of Hawulti, a pre-Aksumite or early Aksumite stela at Matara.

Around the 8th century BC, a kingdom known as D'mt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital of Yeha in northern Ethiopia. There are many theories regarding the beginning of Eritrean and Ethiopian civilization. One theory which was common in the past(especially in the Ethiopian legends) states that it was founded by Semitic-speaking Sabaean migrants from Yemen and Western Saudi Arabia in the past. Megalommatis, MohammedK.P. Yemen's Past and Perspectives are in Africa, not a fictitious 'Arab' world , "[http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/8-4-2005-74197.asp. Another theory, which is more widely accepted today states that it is an african civilization Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: University Press, 1991, pp.57. After D`mt's decline around the 5th century BC, the state of Aksum arose in the northern Ethiopian plateau. It grew during the 4th century BC and came into prominence during the first century AD, minting its own coins by the 3rd century. According to Mani, it grew to be one of the four greatest civilizations in the world, on a par with China, Persia, and Rome. Aksum began to decline in the 7th century AD; the center moved farther inland to the highlands, and the state was eventually defeated circa 850 or 950 AD.Andersen, Knud Tage. "The Queen of the Habasha in Ethiopian History, Tradition, and Chronology" in Bulletin of the School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London, vol. 63, no. 1 (2000), pp.31-63.

Eritrea's first experience with domination by a foreign power occurred in 1557, when an Ottoman invasion under Suleiman I conquered Massawa, Arkiko, and Debarwa the capital of Bahr negus Yeshaq. Yeshaq was able to retake much of what the Ottomans captured, but the Yeshaq later twice revolted against the Emperor with Ottoman support in an attempt to take the crown. By 1578, all revolts had ended, with the Ottomans in control of the important ports of Massawa and Hergigo and their environs, leaving the province of Habesh to Beja Na'ibs (deputy).

The Ottomans maintained their dominion over the coastal areas for nearly 300 years. Their possessions were left to their Egyptian heirs in 1865 before being given to the Italians in 1885. The interior, particularly the Christian (predominantly Orthodox) Kebessa (Highlands) of Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Seraye, were traditionally associated with Ethiopia. An Italian Roman Catholic priest by the name of Sapetto purchased the port of Assab from the Afar Sultan (a vassal of the Emperor of Ethiopia) on behalf of an Italian commercial conglomerate. Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, in exchange for allowing the Emperor of Ethiopia to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians.

Colonial era

Emperor Yohannis IV of Abyssinia believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Assab to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following Yohannis's death to occupy the highlands, and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and achieved recognition by Ethiopia's new Emperor Menelik II.

The Italians remained the colonial power in Eritrea until they were defeated by Allied forces in World War II (1941), and Eritrea became a British protectorate. After the war, the United Nations conducted a lengthy inquiry, during which those who wanted union with Ethiopia and those who wanted independence lobbied the great powers and the U.N. extensively. Eventually a compromise was reached under which the former Italian colony was to be federated with Ethiopia. Eritrea would have its own parliament and administration, and would be represented in what had been the Ethiopian parliament and was now the federal parliament. The Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie, became the monarch of Eritrea and would be represented there by a viceroy.

Struggle for independence

In 1960, the Eritrean parliament voted unanimously to dissolve the federation, but there was evidence of intervention and coercion by the Ethiopian government. Pro-independence Eritreans, especially members of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) rebelled, launching the Eritrean War of Independence. The rebel movement was primarily dominated by the ELF and by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front. The ELF and EPLF were grass roots movements that received backing from Arab governments and the growing Eritrean Diaspora. A civil war led to the downfall of the ELF. The EPLF, with support of the Tigray Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) expelled the ELF from Eritrea. In the 1970s disaffected Unionists joined the ranks of the rebels. The struggle for independence neared victory in the mid-1970s but suffered reverses when the Derg, a Marxist military junta, came to power in Ethiopia with backing from the Soviet Union. Mengistu Haile Mariam, the leader of the Derg, did much to increase the numbers of the independence movement supporters due to his brutality.

Independent era

Map of Eritrea.

The long war ended in 1991, when joint Eritrean and rebellious Ethiopian forces defeated the Ethiopian army, and the Derg regime fell. Two years later, after a referendum was made, Eritrean independence was declared. The leader of the EPLF, Isaias Afewerki, became Eritrea's first Provisional President, and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (later renamed the People's Front for Democracy and Justice, or PFDJ) became the ruling party.

In 1998, a border war with Ethiopia over the town of Badme resulted in the deaths of thousands of Eritrean soldiers (19,000, by government estimates), massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and a severe landmine problem. During and after the war, the Ethiopian Government expelled Eritreans and those of Eritrean heritage from Ethiopia. The Eritrean Government responded by expelling thousands of Ethiopians. The Eritrean-Ethiopian War ended in 2000 with a negotiated agreement known as the Algiers Agreement, which assigned an independent, UN-associated boundary commission known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries. The EEBC issued a final border ruling in April 2002, and awarded Badme to Eritrea. However, Ethiopia has not withdrawn all its troops from the town, which has led to fears for another war.

In spite of initially promising economic and political strides, the Eritrean government cracked down on the free press and on opposition in 2001 when questions about the conduct of the war were raised. The government also failed to implement the new constitution and to hold long-promised elections. The PFDJ Government jailed high-ranking members of the Cabinet and the National Assembly who demanded accountability, implementation of the constitution and asked for an inquiry on the conduct of the war. Later, the government of Eritrea enforced the Italian colonial practice of requiring government approval of all practiced religions.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Regions of Eritrea

Regions of Eritrea

Eritrea is divided into 6 regions (or zobas) and subdivided into approximately 55 districts or sub-zobas. The regions are based on the hydrological properties of area. This has the dual effect of providing each administration with ample control over its agricultural capacity and eliminating historical intra-regional conflicts.

The regions are included followed by the sub-region:

Region (ዞባ) (location on map)	Sub-region (ንኡስ ዞባ)
Central (Maekel Zoba) (Al-Wasat) (1)	Berikh, Ghala Nefhi, North Eastern, Serejaka, South Eastern, South Western
Southern (Debub Zoba) (Al-Janobi) (2)	Adi Keyh, Adi Quala, Areza, Debarwa, Dekemhare, Kudo Be'ur, Mai-Mne, Mendefera, Segeneiti, Senafe, Tserona
Gash-Barka (3)	Agordat City, Barentu City, Dghe, Forto, Gogne, Haykota, Logo Anseba, Mensura, Mogolo, Molki, Omhajer (Guluj), Shambuko, Tesseney, Upper Gash
Anseba (4)	Adi Teklezan, Asmat, Elabered, Geleb, Hagaz, Halhal, Habero, Keren City, Kerkebet, Sela
Northern Red Sea (Semienawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Shamal Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (5)	Afabet, Dahlak, Ghelalo, Foro, Ghinda, Karura, Massawa, Nakfa, She'eb
Southern Red Sea (Debubawi-QeyH-Bahri Zoba) (Janob Al-Bahar Al-Ahmar) (6)	Are'eta, Central Dankalia, Southern Dankalia

Politics and government

The National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in 1993 shortly after independence, elected the current president, Isaias Afewerki. 13 years after, Isaias Afewerki is still ruling the country as one-party state. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled. Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are absent; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to various international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its alleged record of religious persecution (see below).

National elections

Eritrean National elections were set for 1997 and then postponed until 2001. On the pretext of war with Ethiopia, the elections have been cancelled indefinitely. Party-run local elections have been presented as a symbol of democracy. The members of the national Electoral Commission under the ex-Vice-President Mahmud Sherifo (now in jail) were dismissed and replaced by loyalists of the president. In the absence of an implemented constitution, free and fair elections and independent judiciary, Eritrea remains a one-party dictatorial state.

Foreign relations

External issues include an undemarcated border with the Sudan, a war with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996, and a recent border conflict with Ethiopia and military support and interference in the civil war in Somalia.

The undemarcated border with Sudan poses a problem for Eritrean external relations.

Main article: Geography of Eritrea

A view from the Keren-Asmara Highway

Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea. The country is virtually bisected by one of the world's longest mountain ranges, the Great Rift Valley, with fertile lands to the west and the descent to desert in the East. Off the sandy and arid coastline is situated the Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly less dry and cooler. Eritrea at the southern end of the Red Sea is the home of the fork in the rift.

The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). The highest point of the country, Soira, is located in the centre of Eritrea, at 3,018 metres (9,902 ft) above sea level.

The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Assab in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, and Keren to the north.

Economy

Since independence from Ethiopia, Eritrea has faced economic problems characteristic of a small, poor country. Like the economies of many other African nations, the economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding.

The Eritrean-Ethiopian War severely hurt Eritrea's economy. GDP growth in 1999 fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in 2000. The May 2000 Ethiopian offensive into southern Eritrea caused some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by over 60%.

Eritrean society is ethnically heterogeneous. The largest ethnic group (nationality) is the Tigrinya who composes up to 50% of the population, while the Tigre people make up another 31.4%. The balance of the Eritrean population is made up by the smaller populations of the Saho, Nara, Hedareb Beja, Afar, Bilen, Kunama, and the Rashaida. Each nationality speaks a different native tongue, but typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language.

There exist minorities of Italians and Ethiopian Tigrayans. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or being conferred upon them by the State.

The most recent addition to the nationalities of Eritrea is the Rashaida. The Rashaida came to Eritrea in the 19th century

Many languages are spoken in Eritrea today. The two language families that most of the languages stem from are the Semitic and Cushitic families. The Semitic languages in Eritrea are Arabic (spoken natively by the Rashaida Arabs), Tigrinya, Tigre, and the newly recognized Dahlik; these languages (primarily Tigrinya and Tigre) are spoken as a first language by over 80% of the population. The Cushitic languages in Eritrea are just as numerous, including Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho. Kunama and Nara are also spoken in Eritrea and belong to the Nilo-Saharan language family. English and Amharic are spoken to a degree by more educated Eritreans, and there are still some speakers of Italian leftover from colonial times.

The local Tigrinya and the wider Arabic language are the two predominant languages for official purposes, but a few Italian speakers can still be found. Along with Arabic (spoken natively only by the Rashaida), English is the most widely spoken non-African language.

Education

There are five levels of education in Eritrea, pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, tertiary. There are nearly 238,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education. There are approximately 824 schools

Culture

Cuisine of Eritrea is very rich. Here, the typical Kitcha fit-fit is presented with a scoop of fresh yogurt and topped with berbere (spice)

The Eritrean region has traditionally been a nexus for trade throughout the world. Because of this, the influence of diverse cultures can be seen throughout Eritrea. Today, the most obvious influences in the capital, Asmara, are that of Italy. Throughout Asmara, there are small cafes serving beverages common to Italy. In Asmara, there is a clear merging of the Italian colonial influence with the traditional Tigrinya lifestyle. In the villages of Eritrea, these changes never took hold.

In the cities, before the Occupation and during the early years, the import of Bollywood films was commonplace, while Italian and American films were available in the cinemas as well. In the 1980s and since Independence, however, American films have certainly become the most common. Vying for market share are films by local producers, who have slowly come into their own. The global broadcast of Eri-TV has brought cultural images to the large Eritrean population in the Diaspora who frequents the country every summer.

A traditional Kunama herder posing for a picture near Barentu, Zoba Gash-Barka, Eritrea

Traditional Eritrean dress is quite varied with the Kunama traditionally dressing in brightly colored clothes while the Tigrinya and Tigre traditionally dress in bright white costumes, resembling traditional Oriental and Indian clothing. The Rashaida women are ornately bejeweled and scarfed.

Popular sports in Eritrea are soccer and bicycle racing. Almost unique on the African continent, the "Tour of Eritrea" is a race from the hot desert beaches of Massawa, up the winding mountain highway with its precipitous valleys and cliffs to the capital Asmara. From there, it continues downwards onto the western plains of the Gash-Barka Zone, only to return back to Asmara from the south. This is, by far, the most popular sport in Eritrea, though, as of late long-distance running has garnered its own supporters. The momentum for long-distance running in Eritrea can be seen in the successes of Zeresenay Tadesse and Mebrahtom (Meb) Keflezighi, both Olympians.

Eritrea: Encyclopedia BETA

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