Food
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A salad of vegetables and cheese |
|
Fried potato cakes and chicken patties |
Food is any substance, usually comprised primarily of
carbohydrates,
fats, and/or
proteins, that can be consumed by animals (including humans) for nutrition or pleasure. Almost all foods are of
plant or animal origin. Many
cultures have a recognizable
cuisine, a specific set of
cooking traditions, preferences, and practices. The study of food is called
food science. In
English, the term
food is often used
metaphorically or figuratively, as in
food for thought.
Historical development
Humans are
omnivorous animals that can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence suggests that early
humans employed
hunter-gatherer techniques as their primary method of food collection. This involves combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, roots, and mushrooms) with mobile animals which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since their divergence from
Homo erectus, possibly even earlier.
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed
agriculture, which has
altered the kind of food people eat. This led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased
population, the development of
cities, and the wider spread of
infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.
Meals
A portion of food or the act of eating a portion of food is considered a
meal.
Often named and patterned, meals play a role in an important social occasion, such as the celebration of many key
cultural and
religious festivals.
A meal can be used as means for feeding a single individual or shared and eaten simultaneously by two or more people.
The number of meals consumed by individuals in a
day, their
size,
composition, when and how they are prepared and eaten varies greatly around the world. This diversity can be attributed to a number of local factors, including
climate,
ecology,
economy,
cultural traditions and
industrialisation.
In societies where the availability of food has risen above
subsistence levels and beyond
staple foods, meals are also
sold pre-prepared for immediate consumption in
restaurants and other similar
retail premises.
Food eaten in smaller quantities between the culturally normative meals is regarded as
snack food.
See also: Appetite, Buddhist cuisine, Eucharist, Fast food, Fasting, Gault Millau restaurant guide, Halaal, I-tal, Kashrut, Michelin restaurant guide, Muslim dietary laws, Potluck, Totemism.
Food is traditionally obtained through
farming,
ranching, and
fishing, with
hunting,
foraging and other
methods of subsistence locally important. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more
Sustainable agricultural practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by
consumer demand - encourages
biodiversity, local self-reliance and
Organic farming methods.
Major influences on food production are international policy,
e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy, national government policy or
law and
war.
Food for
livestock is
fodder and traditionally comprises
hay or
grain.
See also: mariculture, horticulture, agribusiness, gardening.*
Seeds
**
Cereals from
grasses, including
maize,
wheat,
rice,
barley,
sorghum, and
millet** Cereals from non-grasses, including
buckwheat,
amaranth, and
quinoa**
Legumes, including
beans,
peanuts,
peas, and
lentils
**
Nuts, including
almonds,
walnuts, and
pine nuts
**
Oilseeds, including
sunflower,
rape, and
sesame *
Vegetables (see also
list of vegetables)
**
Root vegetables, including
potatoes,
cassava, and
turnips
**
Leaf vegetables, including
amaranth,
spinach, and
kale**
Sea vegetables, including
dulse,
kombu, and
dabberlocks (technically, the seaweeds are classified as
protists, not plants)
**
Stem vegetables, including
bamboo shoots,
nopales, and
asparagus**
inflorescence vegetables, including
globe artichokes,
broccoli, and
daylilies**
Fruit vegetables, including
pumpkin,
okra, and
eggplant*
Fruits (see also
list of fruits)
*
Herbs and
spices (see also
list of herbs and spices)
*
Dairy products, made from the
milk of
cows,
ewes,
nanny goats,
mares,
donkeys,
camels,
yak,
water buffalo and
reindeer*
Eggs, including
bird's eggs,
roe and
caviar*
Insects, including
honey,
locusts and
larvae*
Meat, including
beef,
goat,
lamb,
mutton,
pork,
frog legs,
veal,
venison,
rodents,
dog,
horse,
human cannibalism,
kangaroo*
Offal, including
blood*
Poultry, including
chicken,
turkey,
duck,
goose,
pigeon or dove,
ostrich,
emu,
guinea fowl,
pheasant,
quail*
Seafood, including
finfish such as
salmon and
tilapia, and
shellfish such as
mollusks and
crustaceans
*
Snails
*
Game, this includes all animals hunted for food.
From others
*
Water*
Salt*
Baking soda* Various
fungi (including
yeast and
mold) and
bacteria used in the preparation of
fermented and pickled foods such as leavened
bread,
wine,
beer,
cheese,
pickles,
miso,
yoghurt,
vinegar,
etc.*
Mushrooms and
truffles, which are
fungi*
Seaweed, which is a
protist* Some
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as
spirulina |
Food being prepared in large quantities |
While some food can be eaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or
flavor. At the simplest level this may involve
washing,
cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as
spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling,
pressure cooking,
fermentation, or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a
kitchen.
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve
slaughter,
evisceration, hanging, portioning and
rendering.
See also: Barbecue,
Eating utensils,
Frankfurt kitchen,
Hangi,
Oven,
Microwave oven,
Refrigeration,
Food preparation utensils.
Food manufacture
Early food processing techniques were limited by the available
food preservation, packaging and
transportation. Early food processing mainly involved
salting,
curing, curdling,
drying,
pickling and
smoking. An early processed food product was
cheese.
During the
industrialisation era in the
19th century, food manufacturing arose. This development took advantage of new
mass markets and emerging new technology, such as
milling, preservation,
packaging and labelling and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ
domestic servants.
At the start of the
21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food
brands; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies.
See also: Best before, Canning, Coloring, Food quality, Snap freezing, Additives, Flavoring, Enzymes, Genetically modified food, Pasteurization, Shelf-life, Ultra-high temperature processing.Types of manufactured food
*
Drinks:
beer,
juice,
soft drink,
squash,
wine.
*
Bread is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough of
wheat or other cereals.
*
Cakes and
cookies
*
Cheese is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
*
Dessert is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g.
Ice cream.
*
French fries,
Chips*
Functional food*
Jam and
Jelly*
Pasta*
Pie*
Pizza* Processed
meats
*
Sandwiches
*
Salad*
Sauce*
SausageThe food-processing industry benefits from a wide a range of new advanced technologies. Technological advances include
computer-based information and
control systems, as well as sophisticated
processing and
packaging methods that enhance
product quality, improve
food safety and reduce costs.There are a lot of
technologies used in food industry such as
technologies for production, for processing raw materials in finished products, for
logistics, for
distribution as well as for
capacity building of industry
Human resources (knowledge management tools, e-learning).Technologies used:
Food is now
traded on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing
season. Between
1961 and
1999 there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food
exports. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.
In
1994 trade liberalisation began when over 100 countries became signatories to the
Uruguay Round of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the
WTO enforcement of
agricultural subsidy,
tariffs, import
quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the
Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in
1962 by the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the
World Health Organization.
Food retailing
The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local
village market place. Here food was sold to
grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local people.
With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be
counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.
In the
20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a
self service approach to shopping using
shopping carts/trolleys and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through
economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as '
pile it high' In the latter part of the
20th century, this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast
warehouse sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world.
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large
companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in
2000 only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers.
Recent technological innovations such as
point of sale technology -
barcodes. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.
Food sufficiency
Food deprivation leads to
malnutrition and ultimately
starvation. This is often connected with
famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. In
2003 it was estimated that each
year, 40 million people die of
hunger worldwide.
Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in
Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using
famine scales.
Food aid
Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices and discouraging food production. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the
politics of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the
World Food Programme.
See also: Fair trade, food security.
Food safety
Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by
bacteria,
toxins,
viruses, parasites and
prions.
Food poisoning has been recognised as a disease of man since as early as
Hippocrates. Murder by food poisoning was used during the
Roman Empire. In the
Middle Ages all
Royal Courts had food tasters.
The sale of
rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of
hygiene,
refrigeration, and
vermin controls in the
19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing
bacteria using
heat and other
microbiological studies by scientists such as
Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of
Justus von Liebig whose work led to the development of modern
food storage and
food preservation methods.
The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.
Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. For example, pests (or their feces), hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, metal shards, plasters etc. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as
HACCP which can, if properly implemented, identify and eliminate many, but not all, possible risks. HACCP is well suited to identifying and controlling these potential food safety risks.
Food allergies
Some people have
food allergies or sensitivities to foods which are otherwise wholesome to the majority of people.
The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a susceptible individual can be
minute. For instance, tiny amounts of food in the air, too minute to be smelled, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in sufficiently sensitive individuals. In theory, any food may provoke a reaction, however, this most commonly involves
gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks),
peanuts, and
soy.
Most patients present with
diarrhea after ingesting certain
foodstuffs, skin symptoms (
rashes), bloating,
vomiting and
regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the
allergen.
Rarely, food allergy can lead to
anaphylactic shock:
hypotension (low blood pressure) and loss of consciousness. This is a
medical emergency. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is
peanut, although
latex products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with
epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an
Epi-pen.
Food allergy is thought to develop easier in patients with the
atopic syndrome, a very common combination of diseases:
allergic rhinitis and
conjunctivitis,
eczema and
asthma. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of these diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.
Dietary habits
Dietary habits play a significant role in the
health and
mortality of all humans. For example:
*
Eating disorders are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect people with a negative
body image;
*13
% of the world's population suffer from
Iodine deficiency;
*In 2003 it was estimated that
vitamin A deficiency causes
blindness in up to 500,000 children each year;
*
Vitamin C deficiency results in
scurvy;
*
Calcium,
Vitamin D and
Phosphorus are inter-related. The consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
*
Kwashiorkor and
marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary
protein.
*
Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing
heart disease,
diabetes, and many other diseases.
Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have learned to avoid foods that induce
acute illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see
vegetarianism,
veganism,
fruitarianism,
living foods diet, and
raw foodism.
The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more
animal fat,
sugar,
energy,
alcohol and less
dietary fiber,
carbohydrates and
antioxidants. Contemporary changes to
work,
family and
exercise patterns, together with concerns about the effect of
nutrition and overeating on human
health and mortality are all having an effect on traditional eating habits.
Physicians and
alternative medicine practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for treatment.
More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about the
chronic impact on health that arise through the consumption of
genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on
animal welfare, human health and the
environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a
counterculture with a preference for
organic and
local food.
See also: Food faddism, Health claims on food labels, list of diets, Slow Food.Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means
fat,
protein, and
carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the
minerals and
vitamins. Additionally food contains
water and
dietary fiber. See the appropriate section for further details.Diets are to reduce weight and improve well being
Western food law defines four categories of object as food:
*any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans whether of nutritional value or not;
*
water and other
drinks;
*
chewing gum;
*articles and substances used as an
ingredient in the preparation of food.
Links to official legal definitions of food:
*
US federal definition of food*
UK definition of food*
EU definition of food*
List of food topics*
Agriculture*
Cooking*
Beverages*
Dining*
Food industry*
Food politics*
Food preservation*
Food science*
Gastronomy, study of relationship between culture and food
*
Meal*
Nutrition
