Gallienus
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Gallienus depicted on a lead seal |
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (
218-
268) ruled the
Roman Empire as co-emperor with his father
Valerian from
253 to
260, and then as the sole
Roman Emperor from 260 to
268. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was unable to keep much of his realm from seceding.
Rise to power
Gallienus was born around 218 to Valerian and
Mariniana, a woman possibly of senatorial rank and daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus.
When his father Valerian was elected emperor, he asked the Senate to ratify Gallienus' elevation to
Augustus, in order to share the power between two persons.
Reign
One of the key characteristics of the
Crisis of the Third Century was the inability of the Emperors to maintain their hold on the Imperium for any marked length of time. An exception to this rule was the reign of the Emperor Gallienus. The fact that Gallienus served as junior Emperor with his father, Valerian, from 253 to 260 may have had something to do with his successes. Father and son each wielded his authority over a smaller area, thus allowing for more flexible control and imperial presence. Another, more probable reason, lay in Gallienus's success in convincing Rome that he was the best man for the job. However, Gallienus had to handle many rebellions of the so-called "
Gallienus usurpers".
In 260, Valerian was taken prisoner by
Sapor, ruler of the
Sassanid Empire, while trying to negotiate a peace settlement. Although aware that his father had been taken alive (the only Emperor to have suffered this fate), Gallienus did not make public Valerian's death until a year later. His decision hinged on the fact that Romans believed that their fate rose and fell with the fate of the Emperor, which in turn depended upon his demonstrating the proper amount of piety (Latin
pietas) to the
gods and maintaining their favor. A defeated Emperor would surely have meant that the gods had forsaken Valerian and, by extension, Gallienus.
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Arch of Gallienus in Rome, 262. It was built by a private citizen, Marcus Aurelius Victor, and dedicated to Gallienus and his wife Cornelia Salonina. |
Gallienus's chief method of reinforcing his position is seen in the
coinage produced during his reign (see
Roman currency). The coinage provides clear evidence of a successful propaganda campaign. Gallienus took pains to make sure that he was regularly represented as victorious, merciful, and pious. The people who used these coins on a daily basis saw these messages and, with little evidence to the contrary, remained supportive of their Emperor.
There were, however, those who knew better. During Gallienus' reign, there was constant fighting on the western fringes of the Empire. As early as 258, Gallienus had lost control over a large part of Gaul, where another general,
Postumus, had declared his own realm (typically known today as the
Gallic Empire). As Gallienus' influence waned, another general came to the fore. In time-honored tradition,
Claudius II Gothicus gained the loyalty of the army and succeeded Gallienus to the Imperium.
Death
In the months leading up to his mysterious death in September of 268, Gallienus was ironically orchestrating the greatest achievements of his reign. An invasion of
Goths into the province of
Pannonia was leading to disaster and even threatening Rome, while at the same time, the
Alamanni were raising havoc in the northern part of Italy. Gallienus halted the Allamanic progress by defeating them in battle in April of 268, then turned north and won several victories over the Goths. That fall, he turned on the Goths once again, and in September, either he or Claudius, his leading general, led the Roman army to victory (although the cavalry commander
Aurelian was the real victor) at the
Battle of Naissus.
At some time following this battle, Gallienus authority was challenged by
Aureolus, commander of the field army in
Mediolanum, who supported
Postumus. Gallienus moved to lay siege to Mediolanum; as the siege was lasting, he was murdered.
Different versions are accounted for Gallienus' murder.
According to
Historia Augusta, the conspiracy was organized by commander of the guard
Aurelianus Heraclianus and
Marcianus. Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that Aureolus was exiting from the city, and Gallienus exited his tent without his bodyguard, only to be pierced by the spear of Cecropius (
Historia Augusta - Gallieni duo, xiv.4-11). One version has Claudius selected by the conspirators, the other chosen by Gallienus on his death bed. It is important to note that Historia Augusta supported the alleged descendance of
Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, so it was important to keep him out of a murder charge.
Other suources (
Zosimus i.40 and
Zonaras xii.25) claim that the conspirancy was organized by Heraclianus, claudius and Aurelian.
Be that as it may, Claudius spared the lives of Gallienus' family â€" Gallienus' wife,
Cornelia Salonina, had given him three sons:
Valerianus (who died in 258),
Saloninus (died in 260, after becoming co-emperor, by hand of his tutor Postumus), and Egnatius Marinianus (consul in 268) â€" and had the emperor deified.
Gallienus has been dealt with harshly by ancient historians, partly due to the secession of Gaul. According to the modern scholar Pat Southern, however, some historians now see him in a more positive light. Gallienus was the father of some important reforms, including the creation of a more mobile
cavalry, which could better deal with sudden security threats. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors
Diocletian and
Constantine I. The historian
Aurelius Victor also reports that Gallienus forbade
senators from becoming military commanders. This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable
equite commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's opinion, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the great emperors most responsible for the creation of the
dominate, along with
Septimius Severus, Diocletian and Constantine.
During Gallienus' reign, the Emperor's patronage of the
philosopher Plotinus allowed for the teachings of
Neoplatonism to thrive. Additionally, Gallienus ordered the persecution of
Christians to cease, although he did not end the official ban on the religion. This attitude toward Christianity by the Roman government lasted until
303, when
Diocletian launched Rome's last major persecution.
Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 2 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG II ITAL VII P VII F, "Legio II Italica seven times faithful and loyal."Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 3 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG III ITAL VI P VI F, "Legio III Italica six times faithful and loyal."Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l5macedonica-RIC 0345-Bj-.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII MAC VI P VI F, "Legio VII Macedonica six times faithful and loyal."Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l7claudia-RIC 0348-j-v.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII CLA VI P VI F, "Legio VII Claudia six times faithful and loyal."*John Bray,
Gallienus : A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics*Pat Southern,
The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
*
"Valerian and Gallienus", at
De Imperatoribus Romanis.
