Geography
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Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. |
Geography is the study of the
Earth and its features and of the distribution of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of human activity. Geography research addresses both the questions of
where, as well as
why, geographical phenomena occur. The word comes from the
Greek words
Ge (
γη) or
Gaea (
γαια), both meaning
"Earth", and
graphein (
γραφειν), meaning
"to describe" or "to write".
Because place matters for a variety of topics, including
economics,
health,
climate,
plants and
animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. Geography draws upon and contributes to numerous other knowledge disciplines. Geography is broadly divided into
human geography and
physical geography, with subfields of including
economic geography,
political geography,
urban geography,
biogeography,
geomorphology,
coastal geography.
With advances in
computer technology, the analytical and spatial data management tools available to geographers, including
Geographic Information Systems and
spatial data analysis, are now allowing
geographers far more rigorous,
quantitative analyses of spatial phenomena. Though the
qualitative approach to geography remains important, with
ethnography and other methodologies used to investigate theories of spatial phenomena.
:''See main article:
History of geographyThe
Greeks are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a
science and
philosophy. Mapping by the
Romans as they explored new lands added new techniques. During the
Middle Ages,
Arabs such as
Idrisi,
Ibn Batutta, and
Ibn Khaldun maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones.
Following the journeys of
Marco Polo, interest in geography spread throughout
Europe. The great voyages of exploration in the
16th and
17th centuries revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as
Great Geographical Discoveries. By the
18th century, geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical
university curriculum in
Europe (especially
Paris and
Berlin).
Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of
geology and
botany, as well as
economics,
sociology and
demographics. In the West during the
20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases:
environmental determinism,
regional geography, the
quantitative revolution, and
critical geography.
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Physical Map of the World |
Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an
Earth science. It aims to understand the physical features of the Earth, its
lithosphere,
hydrosphere,
atmosphere,
pedosphere and global
flora and
fauna patterns (
biosphere). Physical Geography can be divided into the following broad categories:
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Geomorphology*
Coastal/Marine studies*
Hydrology/
Hydrography**
Glaciology**
Limnology**
Oceanography/
Oceanology*
Climatology*
Pedology*
Biogeography*
Geodesy*
Palaeogeography and
paleoclimatology*
Environmental Geography and management
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Landscape ecologyHuman geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses
human,
political,
cultural,
social, and
economic aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see
physical geography), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and
environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two.
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Population density by country, 2006 |
Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:
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Economic geography*
Transportation geography*
Development geography*
Population geography or
Demography*
Urban geography *
Social geography*
Behavioral geography*
Cultural geography*
Political geography, including
Geopolitics*
*
Historical geography*
Time geography*
Regional geography*
Tourism geography*
Strategic geography*
Military geography*
Feminist geography*
Environmental geography*
Children's geographies* Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the above list should not be considered definitive.
Related topics:
Countries of the world -
Country -
Nation -
State -
Personal union -
Province -
County -
City -
Municipality -
Central place theory -
Urban morphologyDuring the time of environmental determinism, geography was defined not as the study of spatial relationships, but as the study of how humans and the natural environment interact. Though environmental determinism has lost support, there remains a strong tradition of geographers addressing the relationships between people and nature. There are two main subfields of socio-environmental geography:
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Cultural and Political ecology (CAPE): Cultural ecology grew out of the work of
Carl Sauer in geography and a similar school of thought in
anthropology. It examined how human societies adapt themselves to the natural environment.
Sustainability science has been one important outgrowth of this tradition. Political ecology arose when some geographers used aspects of
critical geography to look at relations of power and how they affect people's use of the environment. For example, an influential study by
Michael Watts argued that famines in the
Sahel are caused by the changes in the region's
political and
economic system as a result of
colonialism and the spread of
capitalism.
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Risk-hazards research: Research on
hazards began with the work of geographer
Gilbert F. White, who sought to understand why people live in disaster-prone
floodplains. Since then, the hazards field has expanded to become a multidisciplinary field examining both
natural hazards (such as
earthquakes) as well as
technological hazards (such as
nuclear reactor meltdowns). Geographers studying hazards are interested in both the dynamics of the hazard event and how people and societies deal with it. (
See main article: Disaster management)
Urban, regional and spatial planning
Urban planning,
regional planning and
spatial planning use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon engineering, the arts, the sciences, lessons of history, and politics. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of
rural exodus,
urban exodus and
smart growth.
Regional science
In the
1950s the
regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as
regional economics,
resource management,
location theory,
urban and
regional planning,
transport and
communication,
human geography, population distribution,
landscape ecology, and environmental quality.
As spatial interrelationships are key to this
synoptic science,
maps are a key tool. Classical
cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based
geographic information systems (GIS).
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Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn
cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and
behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn
geodesy and fairly advanced
mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.
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Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand
computer science and
database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.
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Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including:
hydrology,
geology,
petroleum exploration, weather analysis,
urban planning,
logistics, and
epidimeology. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from
cluster analysis,
discriminant analysis, and
non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on
Geographic Information Systems, particularly for the
interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points.
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Geographic qualitative methods, or
ethnographical; research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing
qualitative research techniques also used in
anthropology and
sociology.
Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.
In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
* Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
* Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
* Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
* Analytical - Asks
why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
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List of geography topics*
Geographical terms*
List of countries*
Geography reference tables*
Map*
Geographical renaming*
National Geographic Society (
United States)
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National Geographic Bee (United States)
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Royal Geographical Society (
United Kingdom)
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List of geographers*
The Geography-Site - example site for 11-17 geography studies in the UK*
Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
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Association of American Geographers*
Canadian Geographic*
Confluence.org - A work in progress, involving travelling to every point on the globe where the lines of longitude and latitude intersect and taking a photograph in each direction.
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Free Maps Germany*
Geography discussion forums*
Geo-Guide - Extensive list of academic resources on geography and earth science
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GeoInteractive - free resources for Geography teachers
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Geography in Action*
Geopium - Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia
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GISuser.com, information-rich portal about GIS*
Give Geography its Place - campaign to raise the profile of Geography in the media
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Hypergeo : Geographical Encyclopedia*
MapInfo GIS Software*
PopulationData.net*
Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.*
Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.*
The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.*
National Geographic Online*
Royal Geographical Society*
Royal Canadian Geographical Society*
Sheppard Software - Excellent Free Online Geography-Learning Games from Sheppard Software
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slashgeo.org - Community-driven and ad-free website about Geography and Geospatial technologies
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UNEP's GEO Data Portal database with >450 statistical and geospatial data sets
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