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Washington first gained prominence leading troops from Virginia during the French and Indian War (1754â€"1763). Thanks to this experience, his military bearing, his dramatic charisma, and his political base in Virginia (the largest colony), Congress chose him as commander in chief of the American forces during the Revolutionary War. He scored a victory by forcing the British out of Boston in 1776, but later that year was badly defeated and nearly captured as he lost New York City. By crossing the Delaware and defeating enemy units in New Jersey in the dead of winter he revived the Patriot cause. His main roles included strategic oversight of the war, which led to the capture of the two main British combat armies at Saratoga (1777; Washington was not present) and Yorktown (1781), where Washington was in command. He handled relations with the states and their militias, worked with Congress to supply and recruit the Continental army, dealt with any number of disputatious generals and colonels, and came to represent personally the military prowess of the new nation. Negotiating with Congress, the states, and French allies, he held together a fragile army and a fragile nation. After the peace was achieved in 1783, he returned to civilian life, an exemplar of the republican ideal of citizen leadership rejecting any sort of strong-man rule. Alarmed at the weaknesses of the new nation under the Articles of Confederation, he presided over the Constitutional Convention that drafted the replacement United States Constitution in 1787 and, in 1789, was the unanimous choice to become the first President of the United States under the new form of government. His two-term administration set many policies and traditions that survive today. In particular he supported Alexander Hamilton's plans to build a strong central government through funding of all the state and national debts, an effective tax system, and creation of a national bank. When rebels in Pennsylvania defied Federal authority, he rode at the head of the army to quiet the rebellion. He set the norm that no president should serve more than two terms, retiring to his Virginia plantation in 1797. His Farewell address was a primer regarding republican virtue and a warning against involvement in European wars. As the symbol of republicanism he embodied American values and across the world was seen as the symbol of the new nation. Scholars rank him among the three greatest presidents. Early life
The death of his father prevented Washington from receiving an education in England as his older brothers had done. His education comprised seven or eight years, mostly in the form of tutoring by his father and Lawrence, and training in surveying. John Fitzpatrick, in Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 10 (1936) In later life, Washington was somewhat self-conscious that he was less learned than some of his contemporaries. Thanks to his Fairfax connections, at seventeen he was appointed official surveyor for Culpeper County in 1749, a well-paid position which allowed him to purchase land in the Shenandoah Valley, the first of his many land acquisitions in western Virginia. Thanks to Lawrence's involvement in the Ohio Company, Washington came to the notice of the lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. Washington was hard to miss: at about six feet two inches (estimates of his height have varied), he towered over most of his contemporaries. In 1751, Washington traveled to Barbados with Lawrence, who was suffering from tuberculosis, with the hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence's health. Washington contracted smallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly scarred, but gave him immunity to the dreaded disease in the future. Lawrence's health did not improve: he returned to Mount Vernon, where he died in 1752. Lawrence's position as Adjutant General of Virginia (a militia leadership role) was divided into four offices after his death. Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants, with the rank of major in the Virginia militia. Washington also joined the Freemasons in Fredericksburg at this time. French and Indian War
In 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington, now commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel in the newly created Virginia Regiment, on another mission to the Ohio Country, this time to drive the French away. Along with his American Indian allies, Washington and his troops ambushed a French Canadian scouting party, which quickly surrendered. The French commander, Ensign Jumonville, and most of the other wounded French were subsequently massacred by Tanacharison and the other IndiansFred Anderson, Crucible of War (Vintage Books, 2001), p. 6.. Washington then built Fort Necessity, which soon proved inadequate, as he was soon compelled to surrender to a larger French and American Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had "assassinated" Jumonville. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read.) Because the French claimed that Jumonville's party had been on a diplomatic (rather than military) mission, the "Jumonville affair" became an international incident and helped to ignite the French and Indian War, a part of the worldwide Seven Years' War. Washington was released by the French with his promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year. Back in Virginia, Governor Dinwiddie broke up the Virginia Regiment into independent companies; Washington resigned from active military service rather than accept a demotion to captain. One year later, British General Edward Braddock headed a major effort to retake the Ohio Country. Washington eagerly volunteered to serve as one of Braddock's aides. The expedition ended in disaster at the Battle of the Monongahela. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle—he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat—yet, he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero, and he was reappointed as commander of the Virginia Regiment. Although the focus of the war had shifted elsewhere, Washington spent the next several years guarding the Virginia frontier against American Indian raids. In 1758, he took part in the Forbes Expedition, which successfully drove the French away from Fort Duquesne. Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a British officer, which had more prestige than serving in the provincial military. The promotion did not come, and so, in 1758, Washington resigned from active military service and spent the next sixteen years as a Virginia planter and politician.See the major scholarly biographies by Freeman, Flexner, Ferling, Ellis, and Lengel. Because of his ambition, provincialism, and military blunders, some scholars have found Washington at this time to be somewhat unsympathetic; for works particularly critical of Washington during this era, see Bernhard Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732â€"1775 (1964) and Thomas A. Lewis, For King and Country: The Maturing of George Washington, 1748â€"1760 (1992). For an overall view on the French and Indian War which prominently features Washington, see Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754â€"1766 (2000). Between the wars
Washington's marriage to Martha, a wealthy widow, greatly increased his property holdings and social standing. He acquired one-third of the 18,000-acre Custis estate upon his marriage, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children. He frequently purchased additional acreage in his own name, and was granted land in what is now West Virginia as a bounty for his service in the French and Indian War. By 1775, Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres, and had increased the slave population there to more than 100 persons. As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses, beginning in 1758.Acreage, slaves, and social standing: Joseph Ellis, His Excellency, George Washington, pp. 41–42, 48.
During these years, Washington concentrated on his business activities and remained somewhat aloof from politics. Although he expressed opposition to the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until after protests of the Townshend Acts (enacted in 1767) had become widespread. In May 1769, Washington introduced a proposal drafted by his friend George Mason which called for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed. Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770, and, for Washington at least, the crisis had passed. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as "an Invasion of our Rights and Priviledges". In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the Fairfax Resolves were adopted, which called for, among other things, the convening of a Continental Congress. In August, he attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.Washington quoted in Ferling, p. 99. American Revolution
In 1777 the British launched two uncoordinated attacks. The first was an invasion by General John Burgoyne down the Hudson River from Canada designed to reach New York city and cut off New England. Simultaneously Howe left New York City and attacked the national capital at Philadelphia. Washington sent General Horatio Gates and state militias to deal with Burgoyne while he moved the main Continetal army south to block Howe. Washington was defeated at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. On September 26, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Washington's army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army at Saratoga. The British had gained the empty prize of Philadelphia, while losing one of their two armies. The victory enabled France to enter the war as an open ally, turning the Revolution into a major European war in which Britain was no longer the dominant military force. Washington encamped at Valley Forge in December, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by Baron von Steuben, a former member of the elite Prussian General Staff. Washington's loss of Philadelphia, prompting some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This episodeâ€"later known as the "Conway Cabal"â€"failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind him.
Washington's contribution to victory in the American Revolution was not that of a great battlefield tactician; in fact, he lost more battles than he won, and he sometimes planned operations that were too complicated for his amateur soldiers to execute. However, his overall strategy proved to be the correct one: keep the army intact, wear down British resolve, and avoid decisive battles except to exploit enemy mistakes. Washington was a military conservative: he preferred building a regular army on the European model and fighting a conventional war.
Washington's retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, and he was unanimously elected president of the Convention. For the most part, he did not participate in the debates involved, but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. He adamantly enforced the secrecy adopted by the Convention during the summer. Many believe that the Founding Fathers created the presidency with Washington in mind. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to support the Constitution. Presidency: 1789 â€" 1797
Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he held regular cabinet meetings, which debated issues; he then made the final decision and moved on. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them." Leonard D. White, The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (1948) Washington only reluctantly agreed to serve a second term of office as president. He refused to run for a third, establishing an unwritten precedent of a maximum of two terms for a U.S. president. After Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented four terms, the two term limit was formally integrated into the Federal Constitution by the 22nd Amendment. Domestic issuesWashington was not a member of any political party, and hoped that they would not be formed. His closest advisors, however, became divided into two factions, setting the framework for political parties. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, opposed Hamilton's agenda, though Jefferson did eventually make a deal with Hamilton, allowing his plans to go forward Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers'' (2000). Washington publicly remained uninvolved in party politics, though his decisions generally favored Hamilton, which eventually prompted Jefferson to leave the administration.In 1791, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which led to protests. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into full-scale riots known as the Whiskey Rebellion. On August 7, Washington invoked the Militia Law of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. He raised an army of militiamen and marched at its head into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. It also was one of only two times that a sitting President would personally command the military in the field; the other was after President James Madison fled the burning White House in the War of 1812. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government had used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens. Foreign affairsIn 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt to America. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the war against Great Britain. Genêt was authorized by France to issue letters of marque and reprisal to American ships and gave authority to any French consul to serve as a prize court. Genêt's activities forced Washington to ask the French government for his recall.To normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution, Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty. It was negotiated by John Jay, and signed on November 19 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington and Hamilton, however, obtained its ratification by Congress. The British agreed to depart their forts around the Great Lakes. The treaty remained in effect until the War of 1812. Farewell AddressWashington's Farewell Address (Issued as a public letter) was one of the most influential statements of American political values. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper habits and dispositions of a republican people. He called morality "a necessary spring of popular government," and while acknowledging that some people might be capable of morality without religion, said "reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle."Washington warns against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warns against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He called for an America wholly free of foreign attachments, as the United States must concentrate only on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term alliances. Not until the 1949 formation of NATO would the United States again sign a treaty of alliance with a foreign nation. The address quickly set American values regarding religion and foreign affairs, and his advice was often repeated in political discourse well into the nineteenth century.http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html However, the attacks on partisanship were ignored. SpeechesInaugural Addresses*First Inaugural Address, (April 30th, 1789)*Second Inaugural Address, (March 4th, 1793) State of the Union Address*First State of the Union Address, (8 January 1790)*Second State of the Union Address, (8 December 1790) *Third State of the Union Address, (25 October 1791) *Fourth State of the Union Address, (6 November 1792) *Fifth State of the Union Address, (3 December 1793) *Sixth State of the Union Address, (19 November 1794) *Seventh State of the Union Address, (8 December 1795) *Eighth State of the Union Address, (7 December 1796) Major acts as President* Organized the first United States Cabinet and the Executive BranchLegislation signed into law* Judiciary Act of 1789* Indian Intercourse Acts, starting in 1790 * Naturalization Act of 1790 * Residence Act of 1790 * Bank Act of 1791 * Coinage Act of 1792 or Mint Act * Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 * Naval Act of 1794 Legislation VetoedWashington vetoed two laws while President:*The Apportionment Bill, vetoed April 5, 1792, on constitutional grounds.The Papers of George Washington A Bill to alter and amend an Act entitled, "An Act to ascertain and fix the military establishment of the United States", vetoed February 28, 1797, on the advice of Secretary of War James McHenry.The Papers of George Washington Administration and cabinet
Supreme Court appointmentsAs the first President, Washington appointed the entire first Supreme Court of the United States:* John Jay - Chief Justice - 1789 * James Wilson - 1789 * John Rutledge - 1790 * William Cushing - 1790 * John Blair - 1790 * James Iredell - 1790 * Thomas Johnson - 1792 * William Paterson - 1793 * John Rutledge - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice 1790-1795) * Samuel Chase - 1796 * Oliver Ellsworth - Chief Justice - 1796 States admitted to Union* North Carolina – November 21, 1789 by ratification of the Constitution* Rhode Island – May 29, 1790 by ratification of the Constitution * Vermont – May 4, 1791 * Kentucky – June 1, 1792 * Tennessee – June 1, 1796 Retirement and deathAfter retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. In 1798, Washington was appointed Lieutenant General in the United States Army (then the highest possible rank) by President John Adams. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to France, with which war seemed imminent.In 1799, Washington fell ill from a bad cold with a fever and a sore throat that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia; he died on December 14, 1799, at his home, while attended by Dr. James Craik, one of his closest friends, and Tobias Lear, Washington's personal secretary. Lear would record the account in his journal. From Lear's account, we receive Washington's last words: Tis well. Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either epiglottitis or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of shock from the loss of five pints of blood, as well as asphyxia and dehydration. Washington's remains were buried at Mount Vernon. In order to protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived. Legacy
Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular. His decision to relinquish the presidency, after serving two terms in office, became an extra-Constitutional standard that was incorporated formally into the Constitution in 1951. As early as 1778 he was lauded as the "Father of His Country"The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 Pennsylvania German almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). This identifies Washington as "Landes Vater" or Father of the Land. and is often considered to be the most important of Founding Fathers of the United States. He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Washington also ranked number twenty-six in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history, and historians generally regarded him as one of the greatest presidents. Washington was long considered not just a military and revolutionary hero, but a man of great personal integrity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at war's end taking affront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as President, stepping aside. In 1790, Washington's close friend Benjamin Franklin died. In Franklin's will, he bequeathed Washington his walking cane, which Franklin received while serving as ambassador to France during the 1780s. Franklin spoke highly of Washington, even as a king, in his will: "My fine crab-tree walking stick, with a gold head curiously wrought in the form of the cap of liberty, I give to my friend, and the friend of mankind, General Washington. If it were a Sceptre, he has merited it, and would become it."http://www.smithsonianlegacies.si.edu/objectdescription.cfm?ID=57 Smithsonian Institute entry on Franklin's cane Washington was always the exemplar of republican virtue in America. He is seen more as a character model than war hero or founding father. One of Washington's greatest achievements, in terms of republican values, was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in nepotism or cronyism, rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin William Washington lest it be regarded as favoritism. Thomas Jefferson wrote, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish." [1] Jefferson to Washington Apr 16, 1784 Monuments and memorials
Washington and slavery
After the war, Washington often privately expressed a dislike of the institution of slavery. In 1786, he wrote to a friend that "I never mean ... to possess another slave by purchase; it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted, by which slavery in this Country may be abolished by slow, sure and imperceptible degrees." To another friend he wrote that "there is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do to see some plan adopted for the abolition" of slavery. He expressed moral support for plans by his friend the Marquis de Lafayette to emancipate slaves and resettle them elsewhere, but he did not assist him in the effort.Quotes and Lafayette plans: Dorothy Twohig, "'That Species of Property': Washington's Role in the Controversy over Slavery" in George Washington Reconsidered, pp. 121â€"22. Despite these privately expressed misgivings, Washington never criticized slavery in public. In fact, as President, Washington brought eight household slaves with him to the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia. By Pennsylvania law, slaves who resided in the state became legally free after six months. Washington rotated his household slaves between Mount Vernon and Philadelphia so that they did not earn their freedom, a scheme he attempted to keep hidden from his slaves and the public. Two slaves escaped while in Philadelphia: one of these, Ona Judge, was located in New Hampshire. Judge could have been captured and returned under the Fugitive Slave Act, which Washington had signed into law in 1793, but this was not done so as to avoid public controversy.Washington's slaves in Philadelphia and the scheme to rotate them: Wiencek, ch. 9; Hirschfeld, pp. 187â€"88; Ferling, p. 479. Washington was the only prominent, slaveholding Founding Father to emancipate his slaves. He did not free his slaves in his lifetime, however, but instead included a provision in his will to free his slaves upon the death of his wife. William Lee, Washington's longtime personal servant, was the only slave freed outright in the will. The will called for the ex-slaves to be provided for by Washington's heirs, the elderly ones to be clothed and fed, the younger ones to be educated and trained at an occupation. Washington did not own and could not emancipate the "dower slaves" at Mount Vernon. Washington's failure to act publicly upon his growing private misgivings about slavery during his lifetime is seen by some historians as a tragically missed opportunity. One major reason Washington did not emancipate his slaves earlier was because his economic well-being depended on the institution. To circumvent this problem, in 1794 he quietly sought to sell off his western lands and lease his outlying farms in order to finance the emancipation of his slaves, but this plan fell through because enough buyers and renters could not be found. He did not speak out publicly against slavery, argues historian Dorothy Twohig, because he did not wish to risk splitting apart the young republic over what was already a sensitive and divisive issue. Twohig, "That Species of Property", pp. 127â€"28. Religious beliefs
Washington sometimes accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however, there is no record of his ever becoming a communicant in any Christian church, and he would regularly leave services before communion—with the other non-communicants. When Rev. Dr. James Abercrombie, rector of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, mentioned in a weekly sermon that those in elevated stations set an unhappy example by leaving at communion, Washington ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Long after Washington died, when asked about Washington's beliefs, Abercrombie replied: "Sir, Washington was a Deist!"The Religious Beliefs of Our Presidents by Franklin Steiner Various prayers said to have been composed by him in his later life are highly edited.The Religious Beliefs of Our Presidents by Franklin SteinerSix Historic Americans by John Remsburg An unfinished book of copied Christian prayers attributed to him (as a youth) by a collector (around 1891) was rejected by the Smithsonian Institution for lack of authenticity http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/henriques/hist615/steiner.htm although it has not been dismissed altogether by some in the Christian community. His adopted daughter, Nelly Custis-Lewis, in response to a request for evidence that Washington was a Christian, wrote, "I should have thought it the greatest heresy to doubt his firm belief in Christianity. His life, his writings, prove that he was a Christian. He was not one of those who act or pray, that they may be seen of men." [3] Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis' letter written to Jared Sparks, 1833 He did not ask for any clergy on his deathbed, though one was available. His funeral services were those of the Freemasons George Washington Papers. Washington was an early supporter of religious pluralism. In 1775, he ordered that his troops not burn the pope in effigy on Guy Fawkes Night. When hiring workmen for Mount Vernon, he wrote to his agent that he cared not if the workers were Mohammedans, Jews, Christians of any sect, or Atheists, as long as they were good workers.http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/franklin_steiner/presidents.html As president in 1790, he published a letter written to Jewish leaders in which he envisioned a country "which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance . . . May the Children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid." Letter (in reply) to the Hebrew Congregation in Newport, 1790 http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/hebrew/reply.html. This letter was penned by his personal secretary (Tobias Lear), and signed by Washington. Myths and misconceptions*An early biographer, Parson Weems, was the source of the famous story about young Washington cutting down a cherry tree and confessing this to his father, in an 1800 book entitled The Life of George Washington; With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen. Most historians believe Weems invented or greatly embelished the dialogue, though Weems did interview old people who knew young Washington.*A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. He did not wear a wig; he did, however, powder his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction. *An old legend about Washington was that he threw or skipped a silver dollar across the Potomac River. It would be unlikely he could throw an object across the Potomac, for it is over a mile wide at Mount Vernon. More likely he threw an object across the Rappahannock River, the river on which his childhood home stood. *Washington's teeth were not made out of wood, as was once commonly believed. They were made out of teeth from different kinds of animals, specifically elk, hippopotamus, and human. One set of false teeth that he had weighed almost four ounces (110 g) and were made out of lead. Primary Sources*Washington, George (Rhodehamel, John, ed.) Writings (New York: The Library of America, 1997). ISBN 188301123X 1149 pages. Convenient one-volume selection of letters, orders, addresses, and other Washington documents.References* Cunliffe, Marcus. George Washington: Man and Monument (1958), explores both the biography and the myth *Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism. (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s. *Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Acclaimed interpretation of Washington's career. *Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1989). Biography from a leading scholar. *Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776. *Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography. *Freeman, Douglas S. George Washington: A Biography. 7 volumes, 1948â€"1957. The standard scholarly biography, winner of the Pulitzer Prize. A single-volume abridgement by Richard Harwell appeared in 1968 *Higginbotham, Don, ed. George Washington Reconsidered. University Press of Virginia, 2001. *Hirschfeld, Fritz. George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. University of Missouri Press, 1997. *Hofstra, Warren R., ed. George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison House, 1998. Essays on Washington's formative years. *Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1400060818. * Lodge, Henry Cabot. George Washington, 2 vols. (1889), vol 1 at Gutenberg; vol 2 at Gutenberg *McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of George Washington. 1988. Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism. * Miller, John C. The Federalist Era, 1789-1801 (1960). * Spalding, Matthew. "George Washington's Farewell Address." The Wilson Quarterly v20#4 (Autumn 1996) pp: 65+. *Wiencek, Henry. An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. (2003). Further readingThe literature on George Washington is immense. The Library of Congress has a comprehensive bibliography online, as well as online scans of diaries, letterbooks, financial papers and military papers. Notable works not listed above include: *Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George! A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington. *Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0. *Peterson, Barbara Bennett. George Washington: America's Moral Exemplar, 2005. *Washington, George and Marvin Kitman. George Washington's Expense Account. Grove Press. (2001) ISBN 0-8021-3773-3 Account pages, with added humor. External links*George Washington: A Life -- first chapter of the biography by Willard Sterne Randall *George Washington for Kids *George Washington Quotes at Liberty-Tree.ca *39 Volume Collection of the Works of George Washington *Papers of Washington Full versions on-line from the University of Virginia *Papers of Washington Avalon Project (incl. Inaugural Addresses, State of the Union Messages, and more) *Armigerous American Presidents Series *Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief *Biography of George Washington *George and Martha Washington Marriage Profile *A pedigree of George Washington *George Washington Genealogy on Wikicities *Teaching about George Washington *The First Presidential Veto Analysis of the first veto by a U.S. President *[https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm General Washington's military rank] *Fact File and Biography of George Washington *White House Biography * Free ebook of George Washington at Project Gutenberg *George Washington: Archontology.org, chronology, dates, terms, election results *George Washington historic sites in Virginia - Official Tourism Website *George Washington and Christianity *George Washington and Deism *George Washington and Religion, Peter Henriques *Scientific American Magazine (February 2006 Issue) Putting a Face on the First President *George Washington Book Prize *George Washington's Mount Vernon Estate & Gardens *Last Will and Testament of George Washington Notes
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