Governor General of Canada
The
Governor General of Canada (
French:
Gouverneure générale du Canada or
Gouverneur général du Canada) is the representative of the
Canadian Monarch. Canada is one of sixteen
Commonwealth realms, all of which share a single monarch (currently,
Queen Elizabeth II). The Governor General acts as the Queen's
vice-regal representative in Canada and is often viewed as the
de facto head of state. The 1904
Militia Act granted the Governor General the position of
Commander-in-Chief of the
Canadian military in the name of the Sovereign.
[Governor General of Canada: Commander in Chief]The
Queen appoints the governor general on the advice of the
Prime Minister of Canada. There is no specific term, but by convention the governor general usually serves for approximately five years.
As Canada is a
constitutional monarchy, the Governor General's role is almost always limited to ceremonial and non-partisan functions. In practice, most political power is exercised by the
Parliament of Canada (which is composed of the
Crown, the
Senate, and the
House of Commons), and by the
Prime Minister and
Cabinet. By constitutional convention, the Governor General exercises his or her powers, with very few exceptions, solely on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers. Although the Queen of Canada is also Queen of the United Kingdom, as Canada is a sovereign nation the British Government cannot advise the Governor General, or otherwise interfere in Canadian affairs. The Queen does retain all executive power and her
Royal Prerogative, but she very rarely personally intervenes in Canadian politics, either; most of her duties being exercised by the Governor General, though she does alone hold the power to appoint a Governor General, and to add seats to the Senate, but does so only on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister. Any constitutional amendment that affects the office of Governor General requires the unanimous consent of the provincial legislatures, rather than the two-thirds majority necessary for most other amendments. In each
Canadian province, a
Lieutenant-Governor serves as the
viceroy.
The Governor General of Canada is
Michaëlle Jean, who has served since
27 September 2005. She was appointed on the advice of former
Liberal Prime Minister
Paul Martin to replace
Adrienne Clarkson. Jean is Canada's third female governor general, and first black, though Clarkson was the first non-Caucasian appointed. The
Vice Regal Consort is
Jean-Daniel Lafond, who is Jean's husband.
French colonization of North America began in
1580s, but the vast colony of
New France (composed of Canada,
Louisiana, and
Acadia) grew only during the early and middle seventeenth century. The explorer
Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial
Governor of New France in about
1613; however, in
1636,
Charles Huault de Montmagny became the first individual formally appointed to the post. Originally, New France was administered by the French
Company of One Hundred Associates; in
1663, however,
King Louis XIV took over the control of the colony. After
1663, the head of the French administration in New France was known as the Governor General; the first to hold this position was
Augustin de Saffray de Mésy.
France lost most of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain during the course of the
Seven Years' War (
1756â€"
1763), as confirmed by the
Treaty of Paris. The
Royal Proclamation of 1763 renamed Canada as the "Province of Quebec"; the office of Governor of Quebec was also established. Lieutenant-General
Sir Jeffrey Amherst governed the province during the last years of the Seven Years' War, but the first civilian to hold the position was
James Murray (appointed
1764). The provinces of
Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick remained separate, with their own colonial Governors. In the
1780s, the British Government of Prime Minister
William Pitt accepted the idea that the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick should share a single Governor-in-Chief (afterwards termed the Governor General). The first individual to occupy this office was
Lord Dorchester (appointed
1786). However, the Governor-in-Chief or Governor General only directly governed the Province of
Lower Canada;
Upper Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were instead headed by their own Lieutenant-Governors. In
1840, Upper and Lower Canada were united into the Province of Canada, which remained under the Governor General's authority.
The role of the Governor General changed greatly after the
Rebellions of 1837. Soon after the rebellions, the British Government agreed to grant the Canadian provinces
responsible government. As a result, the Governor General and Lieutenant-Governors became largely nominal heads, while authority was really held by democratically elected legislatures and by provincial premiers. This arrangement continued after the establishment of the
Dominion of Canada in
1867; the Governor General and Lieutenant-Governors remained symbolic representatives of the Crown and of the British Government, while actual political power was vested in the
Prime Minister of Canada and in the premiers, at the federal and provincial levels respectively.
The position of Governor General experienced great change during the late
1920s and early
1930s, in the aftermath of the
King-Byng Affair. In
1926, the
Liberal Prime Minister
William Lyon Mackenzie King requested Governor General
Lord Byng of Vimy to dissolve Parliament; the Governor General, however, used his
reserve power to refuse the request, citing the general election that had been held only months earlier. Accordingly, King resigned, and Lord Byng appointed
Arthur Meighen to replace him. Within a week, however, Meighen's
Conservative government lost a no-confidence vote in the House of Commons, forcing the Governor General to dissolve Parliament and call elections. After Mackenzie King returned to power with a clear parliamentary majority, he sought to redefine the role of the Governor General.
At an
Imperial Conference held later in
1926, the United Kingdom, Canada, and other Dominions all accepted the
Balfour Declaration. The Declaration acknowledged that the Dominions were equal in status to the United Kingdom, and that each Governor General would henceforth function solely as a representative of the Crown in their respective Dominions, and not as an agent of the British Government. Instead, the latter function would be taken over by
High Commissioners (who are akin to ambassadors). The principle of the equality of the Dominions was further extended by the
Statute of Westminster 1931. The concept that the entire Empire was the territory that belonged to the British Crown was abandoned; instead, it was held that each Dominion was a kingdom in its own right, so that the monarch was separately King of the United Kingdom, King of Canada, King of Australia, and so forth. Even though the Dominion of Canada was recognized as independent of and equal to the United Kingdom, it remained customary for Governors General to be British, and not Canadian. The term "Dominion" is no longer used either, as it hearkens back to the British Government having some kind of authority over Canada, which it does not. The first Canadian Governor General,
Vincent Massey, was not appointed until
1952.
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Until the 1970s, Governors General wore court uniform, a form of court dress which resembles military uniform, as depicted in the above photograph of the Duke of Devonshire, Governor General of Canada from 1916 until 1921. |
Thereafter, the next period of important change for the office came during the tenure of
Roland Michener (
1967â€"
1974). Michener relaxed the protocols and formalities surrounding the office; for instance, the long-standing custom of bowing or curtsying before the Governor General was abandoned. Michener did retain the traditional military uniform associated with the office, but he was the last Governor General to do so. In
1971, Michener visited
Trinidad and Tobago, thereby becoming the first Governor General to make a state visit to another country. This visit was initially the source of some controversy, as many commented that the monarch, not the Governor General, was technically Canada's head of state. Nevertheless, the controversy did not last long; it is now quite common for the Governor General to make state visits.
The office of Governor General has occasionally been a controversial subject in Canada. The group
Citizens for a Canadian Republic advocate "democratizing" and codifying the office in preparation for what the group sees as the eventual transformation into a presidency similar to the parliamentary republics of Ireland or India, thus completely replacing the monarchy. On the other hand, organizations such as the
Monarchist League of Canada support the retention of the Governor General as the representative of the reigning monarch. Since the failure of the
Meech Lake Accord in
1987 and the
Charlottetown Accord in
1992, Canadian politicians have shown little appetite for opening discussions on constitutional matters, especially on a polarizing topic such as the monarchy. There has been little public debate on the abolition of the monarchy, especially because many Canadians find the conflict over
Quebec sovereignty more pressing. Hence, the republican movement in Canada is not as strong as similar movements in some other Commonwealth realms such as
Australia.
The Monarch appoints the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada. From
1867 to
1952, every Governor General was a subject of the United Kingdom and a member of the aristocracy. The last British Governor General was
Harold Alexander, 1st Viscount Alexander of Tunis, who served from
1946 to
1952. Since Vincent Massey's appointment in
1952, the position has been held only by Canadians. Moreover, by tradition, the post has been held alternately by
English-Canadians and
French-Canadians. Beginning in
1967, the Prime Minister has forwarded the Queen a single name when proposing a vice-regal appointment; previously a list of several names had been given to the Queen. In general, the Sovereign is bound by constitutional convention to almost always follow the advice of her Prime Minister, as long as the Prime Minister maintains the confidence of the
House of Commons and acts within constitutional limits, though she retains the right to encourage, advise, and warn.
Although non-partisan while in office, Governors General are often former politicians. Since
1952, individuals who previously served as diplomats, as cabinet members, or as Speakers of the House of Commons have been appointed to the post. The former Governor General,
Adrienne Clarkson, was previously an author and television anchor; she was the first Governor General in Canadian history without either a political or military background. She was also the first
Asian-Canadian and the second woman to serve in the position. The first female Governor General of Canada was
Jeanne Sauvé, who served from
1984 to
1990.
The third woman to hold this position is
Michaëlle Jean, who took office on
September 27,
2005. Jean is also the first
Black Canadian Governor General.
It is traditional that an appointed individual act as the Queen's representative for a minimum of five years, but the Canadian Prime Minister may advise the Queen to extend the Vice-Regal's tenure. For instance, Adrienne Clarkson's would have been in office for five years as of
2004, but her appointment as Governor General was extended by the Queen on the advice of Prime Minister
Paul Martin, who deemed that it was preferable to have an experienced Governor General in place while a
minority government remained in power. The tenures of other Governors General, including
Georges Vanier and
Roland Michener, have been extended beyond five years in previous circumstances. Governors General may resign from office, as, for instance,
Roméo LeBlanc did in
1999 due to health concerns.
If the Governor General dies or leaves the country for more than one month, the
Chief Justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant, the senior Puisne Justice of the
Supreme Court of Canada) serves as
Administrator of the Government of Canada, and exercises all powers of the Governor General. The only individuals to serve as Administrators due to the deaths of Governors General were Chief Justice
Sir Lyman Poore Duff (
1940) and Chief Justice
Robert Taschereau (
1967).
Although the Governor General's powers are in theory extensive, they are in practice very limited. The Governor General is a symbolic and nominal chief executive, acting within the constraints of constitutional convention and precedent. Should the Governor General of Canada attempt to exercise any powers without reference to constitutional convention and solely at personal discretion, the action would likely result in a constitutional crisis and in public outrage. Almost always, the Governor General exercises the Royal Prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers. The Prime Minister and ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Commons, and through it, to the people.
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Rideau Hall, residence of the Governor General of Canada |
Whenever necessary, the Governor General is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Governor General must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons: usually, the leader of the party which has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority, two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader is then appointed Prime Minister. Such coalition governments are very rare in Canada. In a Parliament in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the Governor General is required by convention to appoint the individual most likely to command the support of the House of Commons, usually, but not necessarily, the leader of the largest party. Thus, for example,
Paul Martin remained Prime Minister for over a year after the
2004 election, even though his party did not command a majority in the Commons. Situations can arise in which the Governor General's judgement about themost suitable leader to be Prime Minister has to be brought into play.
The Governor General appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers and other ministers, but exercises such a function only on the Prime Minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the Prime Minister, and not the Governor General, exercises complete control over the composition of the Cabinet. The Governor General may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action.
Retired Governors General usually withdraw from public life or accept diplomatic postings.
Ed Schreyer, who held the position from
1979 to
1984, became
High Commissioner to Australia upon his retirement. In
2005, he became the first former Governor General to run for elected office in Canada when he ran for a seat in the
Canadian House of Commons as a candidate for the
New Democratic Party in the riding of
Selkirkâ€"Interlake. Schreyer lost the election to Conservative
James Bezan.
There are several examples from the era of British Governors General of Canada where former viceroys returned to a political career in Britain by sitting with party affiliations in the
House of Lords and, in some cases, taking positions in the
British cabinet. In
1952,
Lord Alexander of Tunis resigned as Governor General of Canada to accept an appointment as Sir
Winston Churchill's Minister of Defence.
Lord Lansdowne and the
Duke of Devonshire both served in British cabinets following their vice-regal careers. Lansdowne also went on to serve as leader of the
Conservative Party in the House of Lords for over a decade.
The Governor General is the representative of the Canadian monarch, and may exercise most powers vested in the Crown. If the monarch is present in Canada, however, he or she may exercise such powers personally, although the present Queen has explicitly declined to do that on some occasions. Furthermore, some powers (such as the power to authorize an increase in the size of the Senate) may be exercised by the monarch alone, as required by the Canadian constitution.
The Governor General summons,
prorogues, and
dissolves Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the Governor General's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the
opening of Parliament, during which the Governor General reads the
Speech from the Throne in the Chamber of the Senate, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of five years), and is followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons. These powers, however, are always exercised on the Prime Minister's advice. The timing of a dissolution is affected by a variety of factors; the Prime Minister normally chooses the most politically opportune moment for his or her party. The Governor General may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. It might be justified if a minority government had served only briefly and another party seemed likely to have better success in holding the confidence of the House. The last case of a Governor General rejecting the Prime Minister's advice to dissolve Parliament came in
1926.
All laws are enacted in the Monarch's name. Before a bill can become law, the
Royal Assent (the monarch's approval) is required. The Governor General acts on the Monarch's behalf; in theory, he or she has three options: he or she may grant the Royal Assent (making the bill law), withhold the Royal Assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the Signification of the Queen's Pleasure (allowing the Sovereign to personally grant or withhold Assent). If the Governor General does grant the Royal Assent, the Sovereign may, within two years, "disallow" the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. By modern constitutional convention, however, the Royal Assent is
always granted, and bills are never disallowed.
The Governor General also has the power to appoint federal ministers,
Senators, judges, and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister or other ministers. Furthermore, the Governor General is responsible for appointing, in the Queen's name, the Lieutenant-Governors of the provinces. Once again, the Prime Minister chooses the appointees, although the
premiers of the provinces concerned also play an advisory role. A Lieutenant-Governor may, instead of granting the Royal Assent to a bill, reserve the bill for the Governor General. This practice, however, has fallen into disuse, having last been invoked by the Lieutenant-Governor of
Saskatchewan in
1961. The
Commissioners of the Canadian territories are not appointed by the Governor General; nor do they act as representatives of the Crown.
Furthermore, the Governor General performs some of the functions normally associated with heads of state. He or she makes state visits abroad, hosts foreign heads of state, and receives ambassadors and high commissioners. Formerly,
Letters of Credence and Recall (presented by incoming High Commissioners and Ambassadors to Canada) were addressed to the Queen; since the beginning of
2005, however, they have been addressed to the Governor General, without reference to the monarch. This decision has caused some controversy, drawing the ire of several monarchists.
[Monarchist League of Canada, Ottawa branch]The Governor General's functions are primarily ceremonial. He or she serves a symbolic role as the Commander-in-Chief of the
Canadian Armed Forces. It is not clear whether the commanders of the armed forces could, in reality, turn to the Governor General if they thought that the orders they were receiving from the Prime Minister and Minister of National Defence were illegal or unethical, or whether the Governor General would be justified in issuing new orders directly.
The Governor General spends a large share of his or her working time attending state banquets and functions, making and hosting state visits, meeting ceremonial groups, and awarding medals, decorations, and prizes (including the
Governor General's Literary Awards). It has become a tradition for every outgoing Governor General to establish a trophy or award, usually in sport, to be named after him or her.
The Governor General is also the Colonel of the Regiment of Canada's three
Household Regiments, the
Governor General's Horse Guards,
Governor General's Foot Guards and
Canadian Grenadier Guards - this ceremonial position is directly under the position of Colonel-in-Chief, which is held by the Queen.
In the
order of precedence, the Governor General outranks all individuals except the monarch. While in office the Governor General, as well as his or her spouse (the
Viceregal Consort), is styled "His Excellency" or "Her Excellency." Moreover, Governors General are appointed to the
Queen's Privy Council for Canada upon retirement (unless they are already members), and are entitled to the style "
The Right Honourable" for life, however the term "Excellency" is dropped once they vacate the position. The Governor General is the only Canadian entitled to use the term "Excellency" while in
Canada; however visiting Heads of State are termed "Excellency" while in
Canada. During his or her term in office, the Governor General is also the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the
Order of Canada, the Chancellor of the
Order of Military Merit, and the Chancellor of the
Order of Merit of the Police Forces and
Bailiff/Dame Grand Cross of the Order and Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of St John of Jerusalem. Hence, the Governor General is entitled to wear the badges or insignia of these orders along with any other decorations. At his or her installation ceremony, the Governor General is presented with the collars of the Order of Canada, the Order of Military Merit, the Order of Merit of the Police Forces, and the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
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The present flag of the Governor General was adopted in 1981. It features a crowned lion holding a red maple leaf. |
The
Governor General's flag is a blue flag bearing a crowned lion holding a red maple leaf in its paw; the design was adopted in
1981. The flag takes precedence over all other flags, save only the
Queen's Personal Canadian Flag. The flag may be flown from a vehicle in which the Governor General is travelling, or from a building in which the Governor General is present or is residing. On state visits abroad, however, the Governor General typically uses the
national flag, which is a more recognizable Canadian symbol.
The Vice-Regal Salute is the
anthem used to greet the Governor General. The Salute comprises the first six
bars of the royal anthem (
God Save the Queen) and the first four and last four bars of the national anthem (
O Canada). On state visits abroad,
O Canada alone is used to salute the Governor General.
The Governor General receives an annual salary of
$110,126, and under the Constitution Act, payment of that salary is the first claim on the revenue of the federal government. His or her official residence is
Rideau Hall in
Ottawa,
Ontario. A Governor General's wife is known as the
Chatelaine of Rideau Hall; however, no equivalent exists for husbands of Governors General. Since
1872, Governors General have also resided in the
Citadel (
La Citadelle) in
Quebec City,
Quebec for a part of each year (normally several weeks).
The Governor General and his staff also had a suite of offices on
Parliament Hill in the East Block until well into
World War II [Office of the Governor General - Parliament Hill]. The offices were subsequently incorporated into the
Prime Minister's Office but have been restored to their 19th century appearance after the PMO moved to the
Langevin Block in the
1970s and are now preserved as a tourist attraction along with other historic offices in the East Block
[Explore the Hill - East Block].
The Governor General's staff is headed by the
Secretary to the Governor-General, working out of Rideau Hall, although it is referred to as Government House when speaking of its business use.
[Government of Canada: Office of the Governor General]Only three former Canadian Governors General have left a written testament about their lives in the form of an autobiography.
John Buchan was the first to leave an autobiography,
Memory Hold-the-Door which was written during his time in Rideau Hall and published in 1940. Vincent Massey was the second to write an autobiography and the only one who has written two volumes. The first volume,
On Being Canadian, was published in 1948 and the second
What's Past is Prologue: the Memoirs of the Right Honourable Vincent Massey, C.H., in 1963. Shortly after leaving Rideau Hall
Adrienne Clarkson signed a two book deal with Penguin Canada, the first of which will be an autobiography. Tentatively called
Heart Matters, it is expected to be published in the fall of 2006.
According to the Canadian government, the title
Governor General is not
hyphenated, even though a hyphen is used in other Commonwealth realms. Many other media organizations in Canada ignore this rule, however, and use the more conventional "governor-general" spelling. As
governor is the main
noun in the title, it is the term that is
pluralized. Moreover, both terms are often
capitalized, particularly when preceding an incumbent's name, but sometimes they are not (e.g.,
Canadian governors general).
*
List of Governors General of Canada*
Governor General's Award*
List of Awards presented by the Governor General of Canada*
Flag of the Governor General of Canada*
Department of Justice. 2004. Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982. *
Forsey, Eugene A. 2005.
How Canadians Govern Themselves, 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa.
*
Governor General of Canada official website. *Malcolmson, Patrick, and Richard Myers. 2001.
The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada. Peterborough: Broadview Press.
* Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "
Governor General"
The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
*
Thomas, Paul G. 2004. "Canadian Parliament." 
