Hinduism
Hinduism (
Sanskrit 'â€", also known as ' , and
) is a religion or philosophy that originated from the
Indian subcontinent and nearby surrounding areas. The term
Hinduism is
heterogeneous, as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. Many
Hindus, influenced by
Advaita philosophy, venerate an array of deities, considering them manifestations of the one supreme
monistic Cosmic Spirit,
Brahman, while many others focus on a singular concept of Brahman (God), as in
Vaishnavism,
Saivism and
Shaktism.
["Concept of God"]Hinduism is the
third largest religion in the world, with approximately 1 billion adherents (2005 figure), of whom approximately 890 million live in
India.
[[1] "Adherents"] It is also the oldest known
religion in the world today. Unlike many other religions, Hinduism has no main founder.
[Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005][Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994.]. It also has no single holy book â€" It has many, with all of them believed to be pointing to the same ultimate truth. Its original scriptures were the four
Vedas, but as time has passed, many other texts have also been embraced as scriptures.
The term
Hindu is derived from
Sindhu (, i.e. the
Indus River in particular, or any river in general).
["Meaning of Hindu" ] In the
Rig Veda, the
Indo-Aryans mention their land as
Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers of the northwestern
Indian subcontinent, one of them being the Indus). The term was used for people who lived in the Indian subcontinent around or beyond the
Sindhu.
The
Persian term was borrowed by the
Ancient Greeks as
Indos,
Indikos "Indian", from which was derived the name
India,
Indianus in Latin.
["Indos" ] The term
hindu was also loaned into
Sanskrit, as
' (), appearing in some early medieval texts (e.g. ' and
).
According to
Historical linguistics,
Proto-Indo-Iranian / *s / is preserved in the
Indo-Aryan languages (including
Sanskrit as / s /) but was changed to / h / in prevocalic position in the
Iranian branch (including
Avestan and
Old Persian); see also
Indo-European sound laws.
The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the
Vedic tradition (
Vaidika parampar).
Buddhism,
Jainism and
Sikhism all share common philosophical and spiritual traits with Hinduism in varying degrees.
The Eternal Way (Sanatana Dharma)
'â€""The Eternal Dharma (Ethos, Law, Values)"â€"the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold true forever, transcending man-made constructs and representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied 'Soul' of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (wordstem: / /; nominative singular: ' / /), translated as the "Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Truth" or the
Cosmic Spirit.
Hinduism teaches tolerance of other religions, as expressed in the
Rig Veda verse::
:Truth is One, but sages call it by many names:
Rig Veda 1:164:46.
Hinduism teaches universal peace and brotherhood:
"This world is one family" (Vasudaiva Kutumbakam)
Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following
mantra from the
Upanishad:
[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1:3:28]:
OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.Basic beliefs
Themes common to the value system of Hindus are the belief in
Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations),
(
Reincarnation/rebirth),
Karma ("actions", leading to a cause-and-effect relationship), and
(salvation) for every soul through a variety of paths, such as
Bhakti (devotional service),
Karma (selfless action) and
(enlightenment, knowledge), Raja (meditation) and belief in God (
).
Reincarnation, or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death until it attains , is governed by
Karma.
The philosophy of
Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the
soul or the self, called
. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life.
According to Hinduism, all existence, from vegetation to mankind, are subject to the eternal
Dharma, which is the natural law. Even
Heaven (
Svarga Loka) and
Hell (
Naraka Loka) are temporary. Liberation from material existence and the cycle of birth and death to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit", is known as
', which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus. (Whether one seeks to join an impersonal universal spirit or develop a relationship with the Supreme in a personal form is a matter of personal choice.)
Other principles include the Guru-shishya tradition, the divinity of the word , the power of mantras and manifestations of the Divine's spirit in all forms of existence . According to Hinduism, the essential spark of the atman, that part of the individual which is Brahman, exists in every living being, consequently all living beings are divine. Another belief is although Hindu texts mention a class of evil beings (demons, called Asuras or '), opposed to the celestial spirits (
Devas), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central
Devil or
Satan. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance.
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of
religious conversion, the issue of whether Hindus
evangelize is open to interpretations.
["Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?" ] In practice, though, almost universally, Hindus do not evangelize. (
See Conversion to Hinduism). Those who view Hinduism as being an ethnicity more than a religion (as some secular Jews view Judaism) tend not to believe that one can convert to Hinduism. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by choice by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life. There is no formal conversion process, although in many denominations the ritual called "dikshaa" or "initiation" is seen as being the beginning of spiritual life, much like baptism in many Christian denominations. In any case, most Hindu denominations do not actively seek to recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, so long as the religion is practiced sincerely. There are a number of Hindu "missionary" groups, however, that operate missions in non-Hindu countries for purposes of providing guidance to the public that can be applied to spiritual life within any religion.
Nature of God (Prakriti)
The Vedas depict
Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (
)
["Reality-Shift...". Page 3]. It is the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end, who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe.
Brahman (not to be confused with the deity
) is seen as the unique
panentheistic Cosmic Spirit.
Brahman may be viewed as bereft of personal attributes —
(except the qualities of infinite truth, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss), or with auspicious manifestable attributes —
.
Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of
God is
(literally, the
Supreme Lord)
[Swami Krishnananda. "The Doctrine of the Upanishads". Page 7]. In
philosophy,
' is simply the form of Brahman manifested upon the human mind. According to views, the Supreme Being can be with attributes, , and also be viewed with whatever attributes (e.g., a goddess) a devotee conceives. For the Hindus, ', who is one and only one, is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism,
is viewed solely as
or
Shiva. He is also called
both in Sanskrit and in modern Hindi.
The many deities (Parts and Parcels of God)
The Hindu religion also believes in many celestial entities, called
Devas. The word
Devas may variously be translated into English as gods, demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels, none of which is an exact translation. The feminine of
deva is
'. It is the worship of the devas that gives the impression that Hinduism is polytheistic. However, the terms ' and
devas must not be confused.
Devas could be said to be as numerous as 330 million.
[ "Hindu God and Goddess"] But it is incorrect to say that Hinduism has 330 million
Gods, which are more correctly
devas, or celestial beings. Hinduism is ultimately monistic, which considers the One Reality, the Universal and non-dual Brahman, behind all forms. # According to the philosophy of
, all the
devas and
' are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature, and there is no one Supreme ' as their Lord. To do a desired action, humans must please each or several of these
devas by worshiping them with proper rituals. This view could be regarded as purely
polytheistic. Although the later
' retracted this view and accepted ', many Hindus today still hold it.#According to the philosophy of
, all the
devas are simply mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord (
) in the human mind and hence, ultimately, different manifestations of the One
Brahman that the human mind conceives.
[Arnold, Sir Edwin. "The Bhagavad Gita" Chapter 7 (Page 30)]. Advaita philosophy holds that in order to worship the formless
, the devotee conceives a physical form of God in his mind for the sake of worshiping Him with love ().#According to the philosophies of
,
, and
Yoga, the Vaishnavite schools, and certain schools of Shaivite thought, the
devas are those celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord
' but are above human beings. Thus they preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work.
Whatever their wider relation may be, the devas (also called ') are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic
devas included
Indra,
Agni,
Soma,
,
Mitra,
,
Rudra,
,
,
Aryaman and the
Ashvins; important
' were , and . Indra is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The laud , and Shiva (sometimes called the ), signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. ',
' and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as '. The
also laud other
devas, such as
and
HanumÄn, and
such as
and
. , worshiped as the mother, include
,
Sarasvatī and
, and
and her forms such as
.
In Hinduism the scriptures recommend that for the satisfaction of a particular material desire a person may worship a particular deity.
[Bhagavata Purana 2.3.1-9. [2]]Hindus accept that ultimately there is only One Supreme Reality, diversely manifested. "The Ultimate Reality is the same, but different people call it by different names"(
â€"
Rigveda 1.164.46).
Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual service in devotion (
Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (
Karma Yoga), knowledge (
) and meditation (
). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu
Yoga: The
and the
Yoga SÅ«tras. The
Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorise non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to , or
.
The four pursuits of life
Another major aspect of Hindu
dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the
, the "four pursuits of life". They are
dharma,
artha,
and
. It is said that all beings seek
' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is ' (salvation), also known as
Mukti (spiritual liberation),
,
, or escape from
(the cycle of births and deaths).
Another perspective on these (i.e. dharma, artha, kama, moksha) is that artha and kama are to be pursued like a river which is bounded by dharma and moksha on the two sides.
The four stages of life (Varnashram Dharma)
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four
s ("phases" or "stages"). They are
Brahmacharya,
,
and
. The first quarter of one's life,
Brahmacharya ("meditation, or study of the
Brahman") is spent in
celibate, controlled,
sober and pure contemplation under a
Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth.
Grihastha is the
householder's stage, alternatively known as
samsara, in which one marries and satisfies
and
artha within one's married and
professional life.
is gradual detachment from the
material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in
contemplation of the Divine, and making holy
pilgrimages. Finally, in
, one goes into renunciation, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).
The four classes of society (further Varnashram Dharma)
Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on professionâ€"the
(also anglicised as Brahmins): teachers and priests; the
: warriors, kings and administrators; the
: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the
: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a
, and the system was called
'. Some say it is debatable whether the ' system is an integral part of Hinduism or not and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures.
[Caste System View of Scholars] The
Shruti texts make very rare mentions of this system, without providing explicit definitions. But the
Bhagavad GÄ«tÄ (
4.13) explicitly mentions that the four
' divisions are created by BhagavÄn, the Supreme Lord. And the ' texts (including the
) are more explicit in their categorisation of the classes
[Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91] and framing rather strict rules about this system. During its early development, the social structure was based upon the profession. The
GÄ«tÄ (4.13) explicitly says that one's
' is to be understood from one's qualities and one's work, not one's birth. It is noteworthy that many great sages became
' Brahmins. was a king before he became recognized as a great Brahmin sage. , once a robber, became a great sage while '' was the son of a fisherwoman
[Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics". Page 21]. A hymn from the Rig Veda says :
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......" :(Rig Veda 9.112.3). Though historians do not agree on the specific period, the social system later became hierarchical and based upon birth, leading to the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of outcastes — now known as
Dalits — outside the
') and the practice of social discrimination of the ' and
Dalit classes, eventually forming the
caste system as we know of today.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions:
Vaishnavism,
Shaivism,
Shaktism, and
Smartism. The primary differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism, which conceives God as
, and Shaivism, which conceives God as
Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divinity or goddess,
, sometimes as the power of
Shiva personified (in which case we could classify the approach as belonging to a subsect of Shaivism). Smartism, in contrast, believes that all religions are the same and lead to a
pantheistic God. A number of movements have also given rise to sects like Swami
Dayananda Saraswati's
, which condemns
iconolatry and veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the
Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (
yajña).
Each of the major denominations share
rituals,
beliefs, traditions and personal deities with each other, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (
, salvation) and on their concept of God (
). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.
|
Classification of Major Scriptures |
The overwhelming majority of Hindu
sacred texts are composed in the
Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the
morphology and
linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.
Shruti
The Hindus refer to the
Vedas (, literally, "Knowledge") as
Shruti (literally, "that which has been heard"). The Vedas are said to have been revealed by the
Brahman to the
s while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the
Vedas, Hindus revere the Vedas as a transcendental source of "Eternal Knowledge". The four
Vedas (the
, Yajur-, and Atharva Vedas) are various
', or branches, of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The veda contains mantras to invoke the devas for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the veda has chants to be sung there, the Yajurveda has actual prose instructions for the sacrifices, and the Atharvaveda comprises semi-magical spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes made during the sacrificial ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are the BrÄhmaṇas (बà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£, not to be confused with Brahman, or the brahmin caste), which contain prose commentaries on the rituals; the (आरणà¥à¤¯à¤•), which contain the mystical explanations of the mantras; and the (उपनिषदà¥), which contain highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between, the soul () and Brahman. Each Veda also has various lawbooks and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the s and ', but most people do not consider them an integral part of the
Shruti, or the Vedic literature.
The
' set Hindu philosophy apart with their embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces, subjectively realized by each individual. Some see these forces as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern Indology suggests that early Hinduism relied mainly on the four Vedas whereas Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the '. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. Many Hindus consider the very sound of the Vedic mantras purifying. Hence the rigor in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition for transmitting the Vedas has helped preserve them.
See also: ShrautaBhagavad Gita
' (à¤à¤—वदॠगीता), often referred to as the ', is one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is an integral part of the epic
and contains philosophical sermons taught by
, an incarnation of
', to the prince Arjuna just before a great war. Unlike the Vedas, which are more esoteric and intricate, the ' is read by many practicing Hindus. It is a summary of the
Vedic,
Yogic,
Vedantic and
Tantric branches of
philosophy. The
is described as the essence of the
Vedas.[ gÄvo, etc. (GÄ«tÄ MÄhÄtmya 6). Cited in the Introduction to Bhagavad-gÄ«tÄ As It Is.]Smriti
The Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are called, as a group, the
' (lit., "memory"). All of them laud the Vedas. The most notable of the Smritis are the (epics), such as the and the , considered sacred by almost all followers of Santana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Also widely known are the eighteen s ("ancient histories"). The ' (not historical in the usual Western sense) impart Vedic ideas through vivid narratives concerning various deities. Among the
' today's Hindus consider important is the [[Bhagavata purana|', described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to
' as the highest goal. Many Vaishnavites regard it as being the essence of Vedic thought. Often considered important, too, are the ', an ode to
{{Devi|}}, and the
{{Yoga Sutras|}}, a key meditative yoga text of Shri {{Patanjali|}}. Also commanding respect from Hindu sects of various persuasions are a number of revered Hindu
{{Tantras}}, the
{{Manusmriti|}}, and various {{List of sutras|}}. Among these are the
', {{Tirumantiram}} and {{Shiva Sutras|}}.
The ', the
' and many ', which today's Hindus read far more widely than the
Vedas, do much to inspire the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism. Many Hindus attach more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from these texts than to the literal narratives themselves. Other important scriptures are the sectarian
{{Hindu Agamas|Hindu }}, which are texts related to rituals and worship dedicated to
', Shiva and '. The
Shruti is generally held to take precedence over the
in any apparent dispute.
["The Smritis" by Swami Sivananda]Origins of Hinduism
thumbThe roots of Hinduism date from around 3000â€"1000 BCE. The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith dates back as far as 3000 BCE, though the beliefs and practices of pre-classical era (2000-1000 BCE) are more accurately termed, "Vedism."
["Hindu History" ] Fully-formed Hinduism did not emerge until these Vedic traditions interacted with the shramanical movements of Buddhism and Jainism
[Webster's New World Dictionary] just as Judaism did not emerge in a defined form until the split with Christianity. The synthesis of Vedic ritual and pantheon with the non-violent and gnostic traditions of the shramanas yielded the complex we know today as "Hinduism."
From the perspective of a believing Hindu, however, the
propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. According to
s, Lord
s spoke the Bhagavad-Gita on the battlefield of Kurukshetra in 3102 B.C.; just prior to the commencement of the Mahabharata war.["Year of Bhagavad-Gita (acc. to Puranas)"] s incarnation was preceded by Lord
s, sometimes dated at over 5â€"6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the according to the ' Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord , the seventh incarnation of Lord . Modern Indology dates the roots of Hinduism to about 3500-4000 BCE, based on linguistic and literary data from the Rig Veda, believed to be composed around a similar period. These dates are based on the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis, which posits an influx of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan peoples and or culture into North India in the early 2nd millennium BCE. Recent archaeological discoveries and linqistic research, however, do not support the hypothesis of Aryan migration (formerly invasion). These suggest indigeneous development of indus valley religeon(Vedic religeon/Hinduism) and civilisation. Thus pushing the date of origin of Hinduism by about three to four of millennia (Around 6000 BC).
The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called s
, over a long period of time. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Dharma'', meaning, a noble religion. Many times Hindus (e.g.
Arya Samaj) call Hinduism itself as the Arya Dharma. More specifically Hinduism is the "Sanatan Arya Dharma."
Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the
Vedas. The earliest of these, the
centers on worship of celestial spirits such as
Indra,
Varuna and
Agni, and on the
Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform
fire-sacrifices, called
(यजà¥à¤ž), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger
, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several centuries, if not several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the
Avesta (of
Zoroastrianism), as well as more distantly to other
Indo-European languages and religions (see
Indo-Aryan migration). The
deity
Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with
Zeusâ€"the king of the gods in
Greek mythology,
Iovis (
gen. of Jupiter)â€"the king of the gods in
Roman mythology, and
Ziu in Germanic mythology[
3]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see
Proto-Indo-European religion.
Temples
|
Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here is the Tirupati temple, the most visited religious shrine in the world and the second richest religious shrine after the Vatican.["Tirupati temple"] |
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some
mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the
and many are sites of
pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four
(the abbots of the monasteries of
Joshimath,
Puri,
Shringeri and
Dwarka â€" four of the holiest pilgrimage centers â€" sometimes to which a fifth at
Kanchi is also added) are viewed as the four highest
Patriarchs of the Hindudom.Temples are a place for
darshan (vision of the Divine),
,
meditation, and religious congregation â€" among other religious activities.
or worship, frequently involves veneration of a
(statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of
mantras. Devotional songs called
bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries),
(devotional songs), and
are sometimes sung in conjunction with the performance of the
. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God.
Current geographic distribution
[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The {{List of largest gatherings in history|largest religious gathering}} on Earth.
[[4][5] "Largest gathering on Earth"] Around 70 million people from around the world participated in
Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city
Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) (
India).]]Of the total Hindu population of the world, approx. 900 million of them live in
India. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in
Bali,
Bangladesh,
Bhutan,
Fiji,
Guyana,
Nepal,
Mauritius,
Suriname,
Singapore and
Trinidad and Tobago. In
Nepal and
Bali, Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in
Sri Lanka (1.42 million)
[[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ce.html CIA factbook Sri Lanka]],
Pakistan (2 million)
[Pakistan 1998 Census],
Malaysia (1.5 million)
[Malaysia 2000 Census],
United States (766,000)
[US Census p.55],
South Africa (654,714)
[PBS Country Profile: South Africa], the
Middle East (1.4 million)
[Lexicorient, Encyclopedia of the Orient.] and the
United Kingdom (558,342)
[2001 Great Britain National Statistics].
The six
' or orthodox schools (accepting the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are , , , Yoga, (also simply called '), and
(also called
).
["Schools of Philosophy"] The non-Vedic schools are called
, or heterodox, and refer to
Buddhism,
Jainism and
although anyone who is not an Astik is a Nastik. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are
Yoga,
, and
.The six schools are known as "Shat Astik (Hindu) Darshana."
Yoga
|
In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. |
Yoga means
union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goal is
, or
. It, like the
s, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit (
) and the nature (
), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God (
).
The
s, sage
's
and the
are indispensable literature to the study of
Yoga; they elaborate on
,
Bhakti Yoga,
Karma Yoga and
Jnana Yoga. Of these, the
is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational
Yoga philosophy.
Purva Mimamsa
Among the six schools of philosophy, a prominent school which advocates ritualistic sacrifices and karma for the freedom of the soul is called
school (also simply called
) or Karma Mimamsa. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.
["Purva Mimamsa" An Analysis of the Brahma Sutra by Swami Krishnananda]Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is also known as Vedanta. Vedanta means the
anta or culmination or essence of the
Vedas. It is a principal branch of
Hindu philosophy. Literally, the end of the
Vedas is constituted by the series of literature termed as the Aranyakas (the forest scriptures), of which the
Upanishads form the chief constituent. The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as
Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The
Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of
Adi Shankara.
["Schools of Vedanta"]Non duality: Advaita Vedanta
Advaita literally means "not two"; being non-dualistic, Advaita Vedanta encompasses oneness and goes even beyond (oneness is an affirmation, and "advaita" is a negation; the negation of duality encompasses the affirmation of unity). Its consolidator was
Shankara (788-820). Adi Shankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the
Upanishads and his own
guru Gaudapada. In this philosophy, when a human being tries to know the
Cosmic Spirit (
Brahman) through his mind,
Brahman becomes the
Supreme Lord (
'), under the effect of an illusionary power of Brahman called . An analogy is given that when the reflection of Brahman falls upon the mirror of ', its image is seen as
'. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of '. Note that God is still perfect and untouched by the profanity of his divine power
', just as a magician is not surprised by his own magic. In this level of realityâ€"the pragmatic level, God creates and rules the world with the help of his '. True knowledge of the
Brahman (
') is the only way to liberation; when the curtain of ' gets removed, the person realizes that there is absolutely no difference between the individual soul (
) and
Brahmanâ€"which is the transcendental level of reality. However, good
Karma and
Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Shankara denounced
caste and meaningless
ritual as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth.
(1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman
' as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: ' (
),
chit (soul) and
achit (matter).
' is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God ' for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality,
's system is known as qualified non-dualism.
Karma along with
Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.
Like
', Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with ', but his view was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the God, the individual soul and the material world and thus the system is called
Dvaita (dualistic)
or
tattvavada (argument for reality). Dvaita provides a greater role to
Bhakti than other schools of Vedanta.
Tilaka (symbol on the forehead or between the eyebrows)
The
tilaka (or
tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. Hindus traditionally wear
tilaka, in one form or another, as a mark of faith in a particular tradition.
[ Entry: tilaka]Hindus may wear tilaka always or especially on religious occasions.
The shape of the
tilaka often represents devotion to a certain deity: a 'U' shape for
Vishnu, three horizontal lines for
Shiva. Some Hindus meld both in an amalgam marker signifying
Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva).
To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married women today commonly wear on the forehead a decorative dot, or
. In Southern India, this is called pottu.
Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life â€" human as well as animal. The term
ahimsa first appears in the
Upanishads, and is the first of the five
Yamas, or eternal vows/restraints in
Raja Yoga. In part at least, it has also been influenced from the teachings of
Buddhism and
Jainism.
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a
sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's
Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in
South India, states like Gujarat, which has had significant
Jain influence, and in many
Brahmin and
Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian.
[Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.] Some avoid even
onion and
garlic, as they are regarded as
rajasic/tamasic. Another 20% of the Hindu population practice vegetarianism on certain days, especially on the day of their deity of devotion.
Those
Hindus who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from
beef. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term
gau mata, or
Cow Mother). While most contemporary Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many
venerate her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society â€" as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. There exists a legal ban against cow-slaughter in almost all states of the Indian Union.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
(or Om,
à¥) is the sacred symbol that represents God (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic
mantras and prayers. It is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Vishnu (A), Shiva (U) and BrahmÄ (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. In the
Upanishads it also appears as an affirmation, as in allowing or in saying 'yes'. The written syllable serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hindu dharma.
(
å) is an
Arya, or
noble and auspicious, symbol. It is a symbol of the action of the Principle on Manifestation. It also stands for purity of soul,
satya, truth, and stability within the power of
Brahma or, alternatively, of
Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early
Vedic culture, and is still widespread in the
Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of its recent subversion by
Nazism, which used a tilted version of this symbol under the name
Hakenkreuz, and purportedly associated it with the notion of "purity of race".
Sri Chakra Yantra or Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as
Sri Yantra) is the most ubiquitous
yantra in Hinduism. The Sri Yantra is a
mandala primarily formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are orientated upright representing
Shiva - the masculine. Five of these triangles are inverted triangles represent
Shakti - the feminine. Together the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation and together express non-duality. All other yantras are derivatives of this supreme yantra.
Murtis (icons)
|
The dancing posture of Siva, known as the Nataraja, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art |
Worship of God (the unique truth that can be seen by humans in any manifestation) is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (
) which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of
God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines). It bears mention that
Shiva is almost always worshipped as a pillar-like stone called
Lingam. Some interpret the term
lingam as a
Phallus due to its shape and certain Puranic stories, but actually, this Sanskrit word means
any sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret it as a mystic column (
stambha) trying to represent the infiniteness of
Shiva.
In a
Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration.
Veneration of such Murtis is done everyday in a
temple. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a
temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues.
Mantra
In Hindu thought, meditation according to Vedanta is the repetition of a sacred formula - a mantra. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Om is the first mantra in the Vedas and the Upanishads. Much of
mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through
japa (repetition, usually through a
rosary). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the
sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of
Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the
murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength.
["Mantra and Japa"] Indeed,
Mahatma Gandhi's dying words are said to have been a two-word
mantra to the Lord
Rama: ''"Hé Ram!"'.
The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed
Gayatri Mantra of the
Rig Veda 3.62.10. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken from the ancient times, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the
Ganga/
Ganges) while chanting Gayatri and
Mahamrityunjaya mantra.
Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of
hymns and
mantras.
#
Read 150 Vedic scriptures online#R. Balasubramanian, "Advaita Vedanta".
History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization, vol. II, part 2, 2000.#
Thom Brooks, 'In Search of Shiva: Mahadeviyakka's Virashaivism',
Asian Philosophy 12 (2002): 21-34.# Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003.
The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [
6]# Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979.
Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0# Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988.
The Upanishads. Penguin Arkana.#
(Article on) Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia#
Rigveda (English trans. by Griffith)#
"Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online#
Bhagavad Gita# Sinha, H. S., 1993,
BhÄratÄ«ya Darshan KÄ« RÅ«parekhÄ (Hindi), Motilal Banarasidas, Delhiâ€"Mumbaiâ€"Varanasi.# Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004,
(Shukla) Yajurveda (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.# Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004,
BrihadÄranyakopanishad (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.#Vanita R., "The self is not gendered: Sulabha's debate with King Janaka".
NWSA Journal, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pg. 76, 2003.#
René Guénon "Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines" ("Introduction générale à l'étude des doctrines hindoues", 1921)#
René Guénon "Man and His Becoming according to the Vedânta" ("L'homme et son devenir selon le Vêdânta", 1925)#
René Guénon "Studies in Hinduism" ("Études sur l'Hindouisme", 1966)
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