History of Japan
The written
history of Japan began with brief appearances in
Chinese history texts from the first century CE. However, archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the
upper paleolithic period. Following the last
ice-age, around 12,000 BCE, the rich
ecosystem of the
Japanese Archipelago fostered human development, yielding the earliest known
pottery during the
Jomon period. Japanese history has alternating periods of long isolation punctuated by radical, often revolutionary, influences from the outside world.
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The earliest known polished stone tools in the world. Stone axes, Hinatabayashi, B site, Shinanomachi, Nagano. Pre-Jomon (Paleolithic) period, 30,000 BCE. Tokyo National Museum. |
Paleolithic
The Japanese
Paleolithic covers a period from around
100,000 BCE , the date of the earliest
stone tool implements that have been found , to around 12,000 BCE, at the end of the last
ice age, which corresponds to the beginning of the
Mesolithic Jomon Period. The Japanese paleolithic is characterized by the appearance of the earliest polished stone tools in the world, around 30,000 BCE .
Jomon Period
The lasted from about
10,000 BCE to
300 BCE. Stable living patterns gave rise by around
10,000 BCE to a
Mesolithic or, as some scholars argue,
Neolithic culture. Probable ethnical ancestors of the
Ainu aboriginal people of modern Japan, members of the heterogeneous Jomon culture (c. 10,000-300 BCE) left the clearest archaeological record.
According to disputed archeological evidence, the Jomon people created the first known
pottery type in the world, dated to the
11th millennium BCE.
["The earliest known pottery comes from Japan, and is dated to about 10,500 BC. China and Indo-China follow shortly afterwards" ("Past Worlds" The Times Atlas of Archeology. p. 100, 1995). Alternatively, the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Timeline of Art History [1] notes "Carbon-14 testing of the earliest known shards has yielded a production date of about 10,500 BCE, but because this date falls outside the known chronology of pottery development elsewhere in the world, such an early date is not generally accepted". [2]. Calibrated radiocarbon measures of carbonized material from pottery artifacts: Fukui Cave 12500 +/-350 BP and 12500 +/-500 BP (Kamaki & Serizawa 1967), Kamikuroiwa rockshelter 12, 165 +/-350 years BP in Shikoku (Esaka et al. 1967), from "Prehistoric Japan", Keiji Imamura, p46.] The Jomon people were making
clay figures and vessels decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks with a growing sophistication.
Yayoi Period
The lasted from about
300 BCE (although this date is debated) to
250 CE. It is named after the section of
Tokyo where archaeological investigations uncovered its first recognized traces. After the introduction of rice cultivation and irrigation techniques from the Asian mainland through the
Korean Peninsula, the society matured to an agricultural stage.The tribes structured over time into many small , and alliances and warfare led to the emergence of larger and more organized entities. Chinese records of the 3rd century evoke the
Yamatai country, unifying some 30 smaller countries and ruled by Queen
Himiko.
Yamato period
The of mid 3rd century - 710 saw the rise of the Yamato
polity as the main ruling power in Japan and is usually divided into sub-periods : the
Kofun period (mid 3rd century - mid 6th century), before the introduction of Buddhism, and the
Asuka period (mid 6th century - 710), from the introduction of Buddhism to the settlement of a capital in present-day
Nara.
During the 5th and 6th centuries, The pottery of the Yayoi culture (300? bc-ad 250?), made by a
Mongol people who came from Korea.
["Pottery," MSN Encarta; ] the
Chinese writing system and
Buddhism were introduced by
Baekje in exchange for military support.
[ "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com.] [; George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958. p. 47. ISBN 0804705232] First Part: Kofun periodThe Kofun period is named after the large that appeared at the time. The period is marked by the establishment of a dominant polity centered in the
Yamato area, from the 3rd century to the 7th century, the
Yamato Court, origin of the
Japanese imperial lineage.
Several proto-state formations rivalled, possibly representing different ethnic backgrounds. There are hypotheses of a couple of bigger migrations waves of continental population to central areas of Japanese islands during this period, each bringing something vitally new or becoming a basis of a polity formation.:
Second Part: Asuka periodThe is when the proto-Japanese Yamato polity gradually became a clearly centralized state, defining and applying a code of governing laws, such as the
Taika Reform and Taihō Codes.
[ Mason,R.H.P and Caiger, J.G, A History of Japan, Revised Edition, Tuttle Publishing, 2004 ]. The introduction of Buddhism led to the discontinuing of the practice of burial mounds, or kofun.
Nara Period
Started in 707, the move of the capital under
Empress Genmei to
Heijo-kyo, present-day
Nara, was achieved in 710. The city was modelled on the capital of the Chinese
Tang Dynasty,
Chang'an (now
Xi'an). During the Nara Period, political developments were quite low, since members of the imperial family struggled for power with the Buddhist clergy as well as the regents, the
Fujiwara clan. Japan did enjoy friendly relations with
Silla Korea as well as formal relationships with Tang China. In 784, the capital was moved to
Nagaoka (to escape the Buddhist priests) and in 794 to Heian-kyo, present-day
Kyoto.
Heian Period
The is the last division of the classical Japanese history that runs from
794 to
1185. It is considered the peak of the Japanese
imperial court and noted for its
art and especially in
poetry and
literature. Strong differentiations from Asian mainland culture traits emerged (such as an indigenous writing system, the
kana). Political power in the Imperial court was in the hands of a powerful aristocratic families (especially the
Fujiwara).
The end of the period saw the rise of various military clans. Towards the end of the 12th century, conflicts between those clans turned into civil war (the
Hogen and
Heiji Rebellion, followed by the
Genpei war), from which emerged a society led by
samurai clans, under the political rule of a
shogun.
The "
feudal" period of Japanese history, dominated by the powerful regional families (
daimyo) and the military rule of warlords (
shogun), stretched from the
twelfth through the
nineteenth centuries. The Emperor remained but was (mostly) kept to a
de jure figurehead ruling position. This time is usually divided into periods following the reigning family of the shogun:
Kamakura Period
The
1185 to
1333 is a period that marks the governance of the
Kamakura Shogunate; officially established in
1192 by the first
Kamakura shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo.
A traumatic event of the period was the
Mongol invasions of Japan between
1272 and
1281, in which massive Mongol forces with superior naval technology and weaponry attempted a full-scale invasion of the Japanese islands. A famous typhoon referred to as
kamikaze, translating as
divine wind in Japanese, is attributed to devastating the second Mongol invasion forces who invaded in the spring of
1281, although some scholars assert that the defensive measures the Japanese built on the island of
Kyushu may have been adequate to repel the invaders. Although the Japanese were successful in stopping the Mongols, the invasion attempt had devastating domestic repercussions, leading to the extinction of the Kamakura shogunate.
The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shogunate and the short reestablishment of imperial rule (the
Kemmu restoration) under the
Emperor Go-Daigo by
Ashikaga Takauji,
Nitta Yoshisada, and
Kusunoki Masashige. The Kamakura period is also said to be the beginning of the "Japanese Middle Ages", which also includes the
Muromachi period and lasted until the
Meiji Restoration.
Muromachi Period
The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the
Ashikaga shogunate also called Muromachi shogunate, which was officially established in 1336 by the first Muromachi shogun
Ashikaga Takauji, who seized political power from
Emperor Go-Daigo, ending the
Kemmu restoration. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun
Ashikaga Yoshiaki was driven out of the capital in Kyōto by
Oda Nobunaga.
The early years of 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period is also known as the
Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period, as the Imperial court was split in two.
The later years of 1467 to the end of the Muromachi period is also known as the
Sengoku period, the "Warring States period", a time of intense internal warfare, and corresponds with the period of the first contacts with the West, with the arrival of Portuguese "
Nanban" traders.
In about
1542, a
Portuguese ship, blown off its course to
China, landed in Japan.
Firearms introduced by Portuguese would bring the major innovation to
Sengoku period culminating in the
Battle of Nagashino where reportedly 3,000
arquebuses (the actual number is believed to be around 2,000) cut down charging ranks of samurai cavalry. During the following years, traders from
Portugal, the
Netherlands,
England, and
Spain arrived, as did
Jesuit,
Dominican, and
Franciscan missionaries.
See also: Christianity in JapanAzuchi-Momoyama Period
The runs from approximately
1568 to
1600. The period marks the military reunification and stabilization of the country under a single political ruler, first by the campaigns of
Oda Nobunaga, achieved later by one of his generals,
Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The name Azuchi-Momoyama comes from the names of their respective castles,
Azuchi castle and
Momoyama castle.
Oda Nobunaga almost united Japan. After having united Japan, Hideyoshi invaded Korea.However, Hideyoshi's force were banished from the Korean peninsula by the allied forces of Korea and China.
After the death of Hideyoshi, the short period of succession conflict was ended when
Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the regents for Hideyoshi's young heir, emerged victorious at the
Battle of Sekigahara and seized political power.
Edo Period
During the , the administration of the country was shared by over two hundred
daimyo. The
Tokugawa clan, leader of the victorious eastern army in the
Battle of Sekigahara, was the most powerful of them, and for fifteen generations monopolized the title of
Sei-i Taishōgun (often shortened to
shōgun). With their headquarters at
Edo (present-day
Tokyo), the Tokugawa commanded the allegiance of the other daimyo, who in turn ruled their
domains with a rather high degree of autonomy.
The shogunate carried out a number of significant policies. They placed the
samurai class above the commoners: the agriculturists, artisans, and merchants. They enacted sumptuary laws limiting hair style, dress, and accessories. They organized commoners into groups of five, and held all responsible for the acts of each individual. To prevent daimyo from rebelling, the shoguns required them to maintain lavish residences in Edo and live at these residences on a rotating schedule; carry out expensive processions to and from their domains; contribute to the upkeep of shrines, temples, and roads; and seek permission before repairing their castles.
Many artistic developments took place during the Edo Period. Most significant among them were the
ukiyo-e form of wood-block print, and the
kabuki and
bunraku theaters. Also, many of the most famous works for the
koto and
shakuhachi date from this time period.
Throughout the Edo Period, the development of commerce, the rise of the cities, and the pressure from foreign countries changed the environment in which the shoguns and daimyo ruled. In 1868, following the
Boshin War, the shogunate collapsed, and a new government coalesced around the Emperor.
Seclusion
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Japan's first treatise on Western anatomy, published in 1774, an example of Rangaku. |
During the early part of the
17th century, the shogunate suspected that the traders and missionaries were actually forerunners of a military conquest by European powers. This caused the shogunate to place foreigners under progressively tighter restrictions. It monopolized foreign policy, and expelled traders, missionaries, and foreigners, with the exception of
the Dutch and
the Chinese merchants restricted to the manmade island of
Dejima in
Nagasaki Bay and several small trading outposts outside the country. However, during this period of isolation (
sakoku) that began in 1641, Japan was much less cut off from the rest of the world than is commonly assumed, and some acquisition of western knowledge occurred under the
Rangaku system.
Russian encroachments from the north led the shogunate to extend direct rule to Hokkaido, Sakhalin and the Kuriles in
1807 but the policy of exclusion continued.
End of seclusion
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Landing of Commodore Perry, officers & men of the squadron, to meet the Imperial commissioners at Yoku-Hama (Yokohama?) July 14th 1853. Lithograph by Sarony & Co., 1855, after W. Heine. |
This policy of isolation lasted for more than 200 years, until, on
July 8,
1853, Commodore
Matthew Perry of the
U.S. Navy with four
warships: the Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna, steamed into the bay at
Edo, old
Tokyo, and displayed the threatening power of his ships'
cannon. He demanded that Japan open to trade with the West. These ships became known as the
kurofune,
the Black Ships.
The following year, at the
Convention of Kanagawa on
March 31,
1854, Perry returned with seven ships and forced the Shogun to sign the "Treaty of Peace and Amity," establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States. Within five years Japan had signed similar treaties with other western countries. The
Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on
July 29,
1858. These treaties were widely regarded by Japanese intellectuals as unequal, having been forced on Japan through
gunboat diplomacy, and as a sign of the West's desire to incorporate Japan into the
imperialism that had been taking hold of the rest of the Asian continent. Among other measures, they gave the Western nations unequivocal control of tariffs on imports and the right of
extraterritoriality to all their visiting nationals. They would remain a sticking point in Japan's relations with the West up to the turn of the century.
Renewed contact with the West precipitated profound alteration of Japanese society. The
shogun resigned and soon after the
Boshin War of
1868, the emperor was restored to power. The subsequent "
Meiji Restoration" initiated many reforms. The
feudal system was abolished, and numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and a quasi-parliamentary constitutional government outlined in the
Meiji Constitution. While many aspects of the Meiji Restoration were adopted directly from Western institutions, others, such as the dissolution of the feudal system and removal of the shogunate, were processes that had begun long before the arrival of Perry.
Russian pressure from the north appeared again after
Muraviev had gained
Outer Manchuria at
Aigun (
1858) and
Peking (
1860). This led to heavy Russian pressure on
Sakhalin which the Japanese eventually yielded in exchange for the
Kuril islands (
1875). The
Ryukyu Islands were similarly secured in
1879, establishing the borders within which Japan would "enter the World". In
1898, the last of the "unequal treaties" with Western powers was removed, signalling Japan's new status among the nations of the world. In a few decades, by reforming and modernizing social, educational, economic, military, political and industrial systems, the
Emperor Meiji's "controlled revolution" had transformed a feudal and isolated state into a world power.
Wars with China and Russia
Japanese intellectuals of the late-
Meiji period espoused the concept of a "line of advantage," an idea that would help to justify Japanese foreign policy at the turn of the century. According to this principle, embodied in the slogan , Japan would be vulnerable to aggressive Western imperialism unless it extended a line of advantage beyond its borders which would help to repel foreign incursions and strengthen the Japanese economy. Emphasis was especially placed on Japan's "preeminent interests" in the Korean Peninsula, once famously described as a "dagger pointed at the heart of Japan." It was tensions over
Korea and
Manchuria, respectively, that led Japan to become involved in the first
Sino-Japanese War with China in
1894-
1895 and the
Russo-Japanese War with Russia in
1904-
1905.
The war with China made Japan the world's first non-Western modern imperial power, and the war with Russia proved that a Western power could be defeated by a non-Western State. The aftermath of these two wars left Japan the dominant power in the Far East, with a sphere of influence extending over southern Manchuria and
Korea, which was formally annexed as part of the Japanese Empire in 1910 (see below).
For Japan and for the moment, it established the country's dominant interest in Korea, while giving it the
Pescadores Islands, Formosa (now
Taiwan), and the
Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, which was eventually retroceded in the "humiliating"
Triple Intervention. Over the next decade, Japan would flaunt its growing prowess, including a very significant contribution to the
Eight-Nation Alliance, formed to quell China's
Boxer Rebellion. Many Japanese, however, believed their new empire was still regarded as inferior by the Western powers, and they sought a means of cementing their international standing. This set the climate for growing tensions with Russia, who would continually intrude into Japan's "line of advantage" during this time.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance
To counter the powerful Russian influence in China, Japan sought an alliance with a western power.The British Empire, worried that Russia might endanger the interest it held in China and still burdened with the cost of the
Second Boer War, shared common interest with Japan. The negotiations started in
1901.On
January 30,
1902, the alliance was formally signed between Japan and the UK.Of the six major agreements, none is more important than the third article. This declared that in the event either of the nations was at war with two or more countries, the other must declare war on those countries.Surprised, Russia tried to counter this by allying with France and Germany.Germany backed down, however, and on
March 16, a mutual pact was signed between France and Russia.
In
1905, after several months of bloody fighting and many Japanese victories over Tsarist Russia, the Russo-Japanese War had settled into a stalemate and U.S. President
Teddy Roosevelt was called in to mediate a settlement. The resulting
Treaty of Portsmouth gave generous economic and diplomatic concessions to Japan, especially in Manchuria, and was considered by observers to indicate Japanese victory in the war and official recognition of Japan as a world power. Japan was denied an indemnity, which lead to riots due to the massive amounts of public investiture and fervor in the war. Much anger was also felt at the denial of the whole of Sakhalin (Karafuto) which the Japanese felt Russia had extorted in
1875 in exchange for the
Kurile Islands. Both wars gave Japan a free hand to occupy Korea (
Period of Japanese Rule), which it formally annexed in
1910.
In a manner perhaps reminiscent of its participation in quelling the Boxer Rebellion at the turn of the century, Japan entered
World War I and declared war on the
Central Powers. Though Japan's role in World War I was limited largely to attacking German colonial outposts in East Asia, it took advantage of the opportunity to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. Acting virtually independently of the civil government, the Japanese navy seized Germany's Micronesian colonies. It also attacked and occupied the German coaling port of
Qingdao in the Chinese
Shandong peninsula.The post-war era brought Japan unprecedented prosperity. Japan went to the peace conference at
Versailles in
1919 as one of the great military and industrial powers of the world and received official recognition as one of the "Big Five" of the new international order. It joined the
League of Nations and received a mandate over Pacific islands north of the Equator formerly held by
Germany. Japan was also involved in the post-war Allied intervention in Russia, occupying Russian (Outer) Manchuria and also north Sakhalin (with its rich oil reserves). It was the last Allied power to withdraw from the interventions against Soviet Russia (doing so in 1925).
During the
1920s, Japan progressed toward a democratic system of government in a movement known as '
Taisho Democracy'. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the late 1920s and
1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution, particularly its measure that the legislative body was answerable to the Emperor and not the people, and the
February 26 Incident. Party politics came under increasing fire because it was believed they were divisive to the nation and promoted self-interest where unity was needed. As a result, the major parties voted to dissolve themselves and were absorbed into a single party, the
Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA), which also absorbed many prefectural organizations such as women's clubs and neighborhood associations. However, this umbrella organization did not have a cohesive political agenda and factional in-fighting persisted throughout its existence, meaning Japan did not devolve into a totalitarian state. The IRAA has been likened to a sponge, in that it can soak everything up, but there is little one could do with it afterwards. Its creation was precipitated by a series of domestic crises, including the advent of the
Great Depression in the 1930s and the actions of extremists such as the members of the
Cherry Blossom Society, who enacted the
May 15 incident.
World War II
Under the pretense of the
Manchurian Incident, Lieutenant Colonel
Kanji Ishiwara invaded Inner (Chinese) Manchuria in
1931, an action the Japanese government mandated with the creation of the puppet state of
Manchukuo under the last Manchu emperor,
Pu Yi. As a result of international condemnation of the incident, Japan resigned from the League of Nations in
1933. After several more similar incidents fueled by an expansionist military, the second
Sino-Japanese War began in
1937 after the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Japan allied with
Germany and
Italy, and formed the Axis Pact of
September 27,
1940. Many Japanese, including Kanji, believed war with the West to be inevitable due to inherent cultural differences and the oppression of
Western imperialism (
Japanese imperialism, often just as brutal, was justified as "preparing" Asia for the upcoming confrontation). However, while Kanji took his action in the belief that his nation should focus on subduing Soviet Russia, tensions were mounting with the U.S. As a result of public outcry over Japanese aggression and reports of atrocities in China, such as the infamous
Nanjing Massacre, the U.S. began an embargo on such goods as petroleum products and scrap iron in
1940. On
July 25,
1941, all Japanese assets in the US were frozen. Because Japan's military might, especially the Navy, was dependent on their dwindling oil reserves, this action had the contrary effect of increasing Japan's dependence on and hunger for new acquisitions. Many civil leaders of Japan, including Prime Minister
Konoe Fumimaro, believed a war with America would end in defeat, but felt the concessions demanded by the U.S. would almost certainly relegate Japan from the ranks of the World Powers, leaving it prey to Western collusion. They also believed that such a war would be brought to a close quickly, settled with negotiations. Civil leaders offered political compromises in the form of
Hakko Ichiu and the
Amau Doctrine, dubbed the "Japanese
Monroe Doctrine" that would have given the Japanese free reign with regards to war with China. These offers were flatly rejected by U.S. Secretary of State
Cordell Hull; the military leaders instead vied for quick military action. However, there were dissenters in the ranks about the wisdom of that option, most notably
Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku. He pointedly warned that at the beginning of hostilities with the US, he would have the advantage for six months, after which Japan's defeat in a prolonged war would be almost certain.
The Americans were expecting an attack in the
Philippines (and stationed troops appropriate to this conjecture), but on Yamamoto Isoroku's advice, Japan made the decision to attack
Pearl Harbor where it would make the most damage in the least amount of time. The United States believed that Japan would never be so bold as to attack so close to its home base (Hawaii had not yet gained statehood) and was taken completely by surprise. The attack on Pearl Harbor occurred
December 7,
1941 (
December 8 in Japan). At the same time, the Japanese army attacked colonial
Hong Kong and
occupied it for nearly four years. However, the attack proved a long term strategic disaster that actually did relatively little lasting damage to the U.S. military and provoked the United States to retaliate with full commitment against Japan and its allies.
While Nazi Germany was in the middle of its
Blitzkrieg through Europe, Japan was following suit in Asia. In addition to already having colonized Taiwan and Manchuria, the Japanese Army invaded and captured most of the coastal Chinese cities such as Shanghai, and had conquered
French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia),
British Malaya (Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore) as well as the
Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) while
Thailand got in a loose alliance with Japan. They had also conquered Burma (Myanmar) and reached the borders of India and Australia, conducting air raids on the port of Darwin, Australia. Japan had soon established an empire stretching over much of the Pacific. After almost 4 years of war, resulting in the loss of 3 million Japanese lives and the
atomic bombings of
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, as well as daily air raids on
Tokyo,
Osaka,
Nagoya,
Yokohama, the destruction of all other major cities (except
Kyoto,
Nara, and
Kamakura, for their historical importance), and finally the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan the day before the second atomic bomb was dropped, Japan signed an
instrument of surrender on the
USS Missouri in
Tokyo Harbor on
September 2,
1945. Symbolically, the deck of the
Missouri was furnished bare except for two American flags. One had flown over the
White House on the day Pearl Harbor was attacked. The other had flown the mast of
Commodore Perry's ship when he had sailed into that same harbor nearly a century before to urge the opening of Japan's ports to foreign trade. As a result of its defeat at the end of
World War II, Japan lost all of its overseas possessions and retained only the home islands. Manchukuo was dissolved, and Inner Manchuria was returned to the Republic of China; Japan renounced all claims to Formosa; Korea was taken under the control of the UN; southern Sakhalin and the Kuriles were occupied by the U.S.S.R.; and the United States became the sole administering authority of the
Ryukyu,
Bonin, and Volcano Islands.
International Military Tribunal for the Far East, an international
war crimes tribunal sentenced seven Japanese military and government officials to death on
November 12,
1948, including General
Hideki Tojo, for their roles in
World War II.
The
1972 reversion of
Okinawa completed the United States' return of control of these islands to Japan. Japan continues to protest for the corresponding return of the
Kuril Islands (Northern territory or 'Hoppou Ryoudo') from Russia.
Defeat came for a number of reasons. The most important is probably Japan's underestimation of the industro-military capabilities of the U.S. The U.S. recovered from its initial setback at Pearl Harbor much quicker than the Japanese expected, and their sudden counterattack came as a blow to Japanese morale. U.S. output of military products also skyrocketed past Japanese counterparts over the course of the war. Another reason was factional in-fighting between the Army and Navy, which led to poor intelligence and cooperation. This was compounded as the Japanese forces found they had overextended themselves, leaving Japan itself vulnerable to attack. Another important factor is Japan's underestimation of resistance in China, which Japan claimed would be conquered in three months. The prolonged war was both militarily and economically disastrous for Japan.
After the war, Japan was placed under international control of the Allies through the Supreme Commander, Gen.
Douglas MacArthur. Entering the
Cold War with the
Korean War, Japan came to be seen as an important ally of the US government. Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as an elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and expanded suffrage. The country's constitution took effect on
May 3,
1947. The
United States and 45 other Allied nations signed the
Treaty of Peace with Japan in September
1951. The
U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in
March 20,
1952, and under the terms of the treaty, Japan regained full sovereignty on
April 28,
1952.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan's history consists mainly of its rapid development into a first-rank economic power, through a process often referred to as the "economic miracle". The post-war settlement transformed Japan into a genuine constitutional party democracy, but, extraordinarily, it was ruled by a single party throughout the period of the "miracle". This strength and stability allowed the government considerable freedom to oversee economic development in the long term. Through extensive state investment and guidance, and with a kick-start provided by technology transfer from the U.S.A. and Europe, Japan rapidly rebuilt its heavy industrial sector (almost destroyed during the war). Given a massive boost by the
Korean War, in which it acted as a major supplier to the UN force, Japan's economy embarked on a prolonged period of extremely rapid growth, led by the manufacturing sectors. Japan emerged as a significant power in many economic spheres, including steel working, car manufacture and the manufacture of electronic goods.
It is usually argued that this was achieved through innovation in the areas of
labour relations and manufacturing automation (Japan pioneered the use of robotics in manufacturing). Throughout this period its annual GNP growth was over twice that of its nearest competitor, the U.S.A. By the 1980s, Japan - despite its small size - had the world's second largest economy, after the U.S.A. These developments had a marked effect on its relations with the U.S.A., the foreign nation with which it had the closest links. The U.S.A. initially heavily encouraged Japan's development, seeing a strong Japan as a necessary counterbalance to Communist China.
By the
1980s, the sheer strength of the Japanese economy had become a sticking point. The U.S.A. had a massive trade deficit with Japan - that is, it imported substantially more from Japan than it exported to it. This deficit became a scapegoat for American economic weakness, and relations between the two cooled substantially. There was particular friction over the issue of Japanese car exports, as Japanese cars by this point accounted for over 30% of the American market. The U.S.A. also criticised the closed nature of the Japanese economy, which was marked by heavy tariff protection which made entry into the Japanese market difficult for foreign firms. Japan throughout the 1980s and 1990s embarked on a process of economic liberalisation aimed at appeasing American criticism. The car issue was dealt with through a series of "voluntary" restrictions on Japanese exports and by making factories in America.
The economic miracle ended abruptly at the very start of the 1990s. In the late 1980s, abnormalities within the Japanese economic system had fueled a massive wave of speculation by Japanese companies,
banks and
securities companies. Briefly, a combination of incredibly high land values and incredibly low
interest rates led to a position in which
credit was both easily available and extremely cheap.
This led to massive borrowing, the proceeds of which were invested mostly in domestic and foreign stocks and securities. Recognising that this bubble was unsustainable, resting, as it did, on unrealisable land values—the loans were ultimately secured on land holdings, the
Ministry of Finance sharply raised interest rates.
This "popped the bubble" in spectacular fashion, leading to a major crash in the
stock market. It also led to a
debt crisis; a large proportion of the huge debts that had been run up turned bad, which in turn led to a crisis in the banking sector, with many banks having to be bailed out by the government. Eventually, many became unsustainable, and a wave of consolidation took place, and as such there are now only four national banks in Japan.
Critically for the long-term economic situation, it meant many Japanese firms were lumbered with massive debts, affecting their ability for capital investment. It also meant credit became very difficult to obtain, due to the beleaguered situation of the banks; even now the official interest rate is at 0% and has been for several years. Despite this credit is still difficult to obtain.
Overall, this has led to the phenomenon known as the "lost decade"; economic expansion effectively came to a total halt in Japan during the 1990s. The effect on everyday life has been rather muted, however.
Unemployment runs reasonably high, but not at crisis levels. The official figure is a little under 5%, but this is a considerable underestimate — the actual situation would probably be around 10%.
This has combined with the traditional Japanese emphasis on frugality and saving (saving money is a cultural habit in Japan) to produce a quite limited effect on the average Japanese family, which continues much as it did in the period of the miracle.
Since the end of American rule in 1952, the
conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been the largest political party. While various scandals have plagued the party, the LDP has been in power almost constantly since 1955, when it was created with the merging of Japan's Liberal and Democratic conservative parties. Only in 1993 did Japan come under
reformist rule for a year. Today, the Liberal Democratic Party continues to dominate Japanese politics, though the opposition, led by the
Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) seems to be gaining stronger influence in the Diet.
Today, the government is led by Prime Minster
Junichiro Koizumi, holding office since 2001, who is a member of the Liberal Democratic Party. He made a radical change when allowed for members of the Japanese Self-Defense Forces (the modern day antecedent of the Imperial Army) to be sent to
Iraq. Today, the ruling coalition is formed by the conservative LDP and also the
New Clean Government Party, a conservative yet
theocratic Buddhist political party affiliated with the Buddhist sect
Soka Gakkai. The opposition is formed by the Democratic Party, as well as the moderate yet staunchly
communist Japanese Communist Party, and the somewhat
social-democratic Social Democratic Party (Japan), formerly the
Japan Socialist Party.
Minor political parties included the conservative
Liberal League, as well as the
Midori no kaigi, an ecologist-reformist party formerly known as
the Sakigake Party, and before that, the
New Party Sakigake.
|
Current Emperor (Akihito) |
|
Headquarters of Tokyo Metropolitan Government was buit in 1991 |
1989 marked one of the most rapid economic growth spurts in Japanese history. With a strong
yen and a favorable exchange rate with the dollar, the
Bank of Japan kept interest rates low, sparking an investment boom that drove
Tokyo property values up sixty percent within the year. Shortly before New Year's Day, the
Nikkei 225 reached its record high of 39,000. By
1991, it had fallen to 15,000, signifying the end of Japan's famed "bubble economy."
The
Recruit Scandal of
1988 had already eroded public confidence in the
Liberal Democratic Party, which had controlled the Japanese government for 38 years. In
1993, the LDP was ousted by a coalition led by
Morihiro Hosokawa. However, the coalition collapsed as parties had gathered to simply overthrow LDP and lacked an unified position on almost every social issue. The LDP returned to the government in
1996, when it helped to elect Social Democrat
Tomiichi Murayama as prime minister.
In
1991 Headquarters of Tokyo Metropolitan Government was built. Some people used to call this building "Tax Tower" or "Tower of Bubble" (because it was built during the
bubble economy.)
In
1993 the
Okushiri tsunami occurred off the coast of
Hokkaido as a result of an earthquake on
July 12. As a result, 202 people on the small island of Okushiri lost their lives, and hundreds more were missing or injured.
In
1995, there was a large
earthquake in
Kobe. The same year, there was a
sarin gas
terrorist attack on the Tokyo subway system by the doomsday
cult Aum Shinrikyo (see
Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway).
The Heisei period also marked Japan's reemergence in military. In
1991, Japan pledged billions of dollars to support the
Gulf War but constitutional arguments prevented a participation in or support of actual war.
Minesweepers were sent in after the war as a part of the reconstruction effort. Following the
2003 invasion of Iraq, Prime Minister
Junichiro Koizumi's Cabinet approved a plan to send about 1,000 soldiers of the
Japan Self-Defense Forces to help in
Iraq's reconstruction, the biggest overseas troop deployment since
World War II without the sanction of the
United Nations. These troops were deployed in
2004.
On
October 23,
2004, the
Heisei 16 Niigata Prefecture earthquakes (
magnitude 6.9) rocked the
Hokuriku region, killing 32 and injuring hundreds.
One commonly accepted
periodization of
Japanese History:
Era Name (
Nengō) in Japan ( after Meiji )
Nengō are commonly used in Japan as an alternative to the
Gregorian calendar.:For example, in censuses, birthdays are written using
Nengō.:Dates of newspapers and official documents are also written using
Nengō.
Nengō are changed upon the enthronement of each new
Emperor of Japan (
Tennō).
Meiji (
1868 -
1912):
Taishō (
1912 -
1926):
Showa (
1926 (December 25) -
1989 (January 7) ):
Heisei (
1989 (January 8) - present )
For Example :::1945 was the 20th year of Shōwa.::2001 was the 13th year of Heisei.::1989 was the 64th year of Shōwa through January 7, but on January 8, it became the 1st year(
Gan-nen) of Heisei.
Before World War II ended, Imperial era (
Kōki) is also used in common that the year of enthronement of first emperor (
Jimmu-Tennō) is defined as First Year. (= 660 BCE)
*
Japanese Paleolithic Hoax *
History of Tokyo*
Military History of Japan*
List of Japanese battlesPostwar Japan
* Allinson, Gary D.
Japan's Postwar History, 2nd edition, Cornell University Press, 2004 (ISBN 0801489121)
* -
Japan*
Bibliography of Japanese History up to 1912, University of Cambridge.
*
Samurai Archives Japanese History Page, a great amount of text about Japanese history
*
The Japanese History Documentation Project by Christopher Spackman. This is published under the terms of the
GFDL, so it should be usable as a resource for Wikipedia.
*
Outline Chronology of Japanese Cultural History*
National Museum of Japanese History*
SengokuDaimyo.com, the website of Samurai author and historian
Anthony J. Bryant*
Yamada Sho (2002). Politics and Personality: Japan's Worst Archaeology Scandal,
Harvard Asia Quarterly Vol. VI, No. 3. In-depth commentary on the extensive fraud that took place in archeology in Japan over a 20-year period.
