History of Tamil Nadu
The
History of Tamil Nadu dates back to the early prehistory. The
Southern Indian region where
Tamil Nadu is located is one of the oldest regions that has been continuously inhabited. Throughout its history, spanning from the early
Palaeolithic age to the modern time, this region has maintained the uniqueness of its culture and practices while absorbing and coexisting with various external cultures and influences. One of the regions with continuous human inhabitations since pre-historic times, Tamil Nadu has been in continuous contact with the rest of India and other neighbouring lands. Except for a few relatively short periods during its history, Tamil Nadu had been ruled by kings who were natives of the region. The three Tamil dynasties of
Chera,
Chola and
Pandya were of very ancient origins. Together they ruled over a land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of some of the oldest extant
literatures in the world. Alien incursions such as the
Kalabhras in the ancient times, by the Muslim armies of the
Delhi Sultanate and eventually the
European trading companies did little to alter the nature of the
Tamil culture. Tamil Nadu provided its share of revolutionaries and martyrs for the
Indian independence struggle. As part of the modern
Indian Federation, Tamil Nadu has produced a number of leaders and statesmen.
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NASA satellite photo of South India and Tamil Nadu, January 31, 2003 |
Legends
Although the antiquity of the culture and history of the
Tamil people is not disputed, there is very little concrete historical evidence have been found for the period prior to 600CE. However, various legends became prevalent after the tenth century CE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to
Iraiyanar Agapporul, a tenth/eleventh century annotation on the
Sangam literature, the
Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising of 49 ancient
nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The
Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous lieterary activity during three
Sangams. However there have been no direct archaeological finds supporting these legends. The available evidence suggests that the history of Tamil Nadu follows the
history of the rest of India.
Palaeolithic period (500,000 " 3000 BCE)
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Acheulian handaxe found at Attirampakkam |
The prehistoric period during which the
Palaeolithic civilisations existed in the Tamil Nadu region has been estimated to span the from about 500,000 BCE until around 3000 BCE.
[See Historical Atlas of South India-Timeline-http://www.ifpindia.org/Historical-Atlas-of-South-India-Timeline.html (French Institute of Pondicherry)] This period coincides with the middle and late
Pleistocene periods during which there were frequent climate changes with alternating arid, semi-arid and moist phases. For most part of the lower Palaeolithic stage, man lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. One of these is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of
Chennai in Tamil Nadu.
[Pappu et al, Antiquity Vol 77 No 297 September 2003] Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE.
[See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, OUP, Reprinted 2000 pp 44] Man in South India lived in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting on food he hunted and gathered instead of actively growing it according to his needs. This man belonged to the species of
Homo erectus.
The real ancestor of modern man (
Homo sapiens sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could fabricate thinner
flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. This period is commonly known as the '
Upper Palaeolithic period'. From about 10,000 years ago, he made still smaller tools called
Microlithic tools.
[The material used by the early man to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Thirunelveli district. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, pp 45] During this period man inhabited varying environments in open terrains, near foothills, and on seacoasts. Besides, he also started to live in semi-permanent dwellings in natural rock-shelters, where he used his aesthetic instincts to produce of rock painting and etchings. At this stage man was not only a hunter-gatherer, but also took to fishing. He cared for his dead by giving them ritual burials. Archaeological evidence suggests that the micorlithic period lasted between 6000 " 3000 BCE.
[ See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, pp 46]Neolithic period (3000 " 1000 BCE)
Humans of the
Neolithic period made his stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing.
[Recent archaeological finds of a Neolithic axe head " See The Hindu May 1, 2006 - http://www.thehindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm] For the first time some storage vessels were made using clay, as well as the first steps in cultivation. Cattle and sheep were domesticated. In Tamil Nadu the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE.
[Carbon-14 dating of Neolithic remains from Utnur in Andhra Pradesh has yielded this estimate - Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, pp49] The Neolithic stage man lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. He gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. The Neolithic man was also starting to use copper for making certain tools of weapons.
Megalithic period (1000 " 300 BCE)
Man started using
iron for making tools and weapons. Unlike in north India, the
Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by
Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places. On the basis of some excavations, and on the basis of the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south.
[Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture - Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, pp49-51] The megalithic burials are so called due to their construction using large-sized stones, natural boulders or quarried slabs. The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur. Recent excavations at these sites have also provided samples of early Tamil writing, dating back to at least 500 BCE.
[ See The Hindu, 2005 http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/17/stories/2005021704471300.htm ]There were three monarchical states, headed by kings called
Ventar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination
vel. Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called
kizar or
mannar. During the third century BCE, the
Deccan was part of the
Mauryan kingdom, and from the middle of the first century BCE to second century CE the same area was ruled by the
Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. It was a typical heroic age where the brave men were extolled in life and venerated after their death. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Gradually the rulers came under the spell of north Indian influence and
Vedic ideology, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler.
The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandya, and Chera are mentioned in the
Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to
Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.
[Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 20 ] The king of
Kalinga,
Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous
Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.
Velir chieftains
Asoka's
edicts mentioned the a clan of rulers called
Satyaputas along with the three crowned Tamil kings.
[Asokas's second rock-edits mention these names - Sastri, K.A. A History of South India pp 77] The identity of the Satyaputa has not been satisfactorily deciphered so far. The Sanskrit name means 'members of the fraternity of truth'.
[Sastri, K.A. A History of South India pp 77] The
Velirs or chieftains occupied a
strata lower than that of the Chera, Chola and Pandya kings and were sometimes subordinate to them.
[Karikala Chola married a Velir princess " KAN Sastri, The Colas pp 49] There are numerous poems in the ancient
Sangam literature extolling these chieftains. Some of the most prominent amongst them were known as the 'seven patrons' (
kadaiyezhu vallal).
[The seven patrons were: Paari, Malayamn Thirumudi Kaari, Ori, Adigaman, Began, Nalli and Ay Kandiran] Neduman Anji, an Adigaman chieftain, based in Tagadur was a contemporary of
Auvaiyar.
[A Tamil and Prakrit epigraph found recently near Tirukkovilur in Tamil Nadu says satiyaputo atiyan netuman anci ceyivitta pali (Monastry built by Satyaputa Athiyan Nduman Anji ) " [1]] The Sangam poem
Thagadur yathirai, now lost, was written about Adigaman Neduman Anji and his battle with the Chera king.
In the medieval period, many of these
Velirs such as the Sambuvaraya, Malaiyaman, Kadavaraya, and the Kodumbalur chieftains were feudatories of the Chola emperors. When the Chola empire declined they rebelled against the central Chola authority.
[ Sastri, K.A. A History of South India pp 175]Cholas
Of the
early Cholas,
Karikala Chola was the most famous. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry.
[Pattinappaalai, Porunaratruppadai and a number of individual poems in Akananuru and Purananuru have been the main source for the information we attribute now to Karikala. See also Sastri, K.A.N, The Colas, 1935] In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of Kaveri with the aid of his feudatories.
[Cilappatikaram (c. sixth century C.E.) which attributes northern campaigns and conquests to all the three monarchs of the Tamil country, gives a glorious account of the northern expeditions of Karikala, which took him as far north as the Himalayas and gained for him the alliance and subjugation of the kings of Vajra, Magadha and Avanti countries. There is no contemporary evidence either in Sangam literature or from the north Indian source for such an expedition.] These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam.
Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a
Saiva saint during the medieval period.
[63 Nayanmars - http://www.tamilnation.org/sathyam/east/saivaism/63nayanmars.htm]Pandyas
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Ancient map of south India created after Ptolomy, probably following his cartography. |
Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southern most tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in
Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period.
Megasthenes in his
Indika mentions the Pandyan kingdom.
[In Megasthenes' account, the Pandya kingdom is ruled by Pandaia, a daughter of Herakles - Sastri, K.A. A History of South India pp 23 ] The
Pandyas excelled in trade and learning.
[See Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems (http://www.thebeadsite.com/UNI-MAPS.html)] They controlled the present districts of
Madurai,
Tirunelveli, and part of south Kerala. The Pandyas had trading contacts with
Greece and
Rome. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', yet another Nedunjeliyan 'the conqueror of the Aryan army' and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Besides several short poems found in the
Akananuru and the
Purananuru collections, there are two major works -
Mathuraikkanci and the
Nedunalvadai (in the collection of
Pattupattu) give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the third century CE during the incursion of the
Kalabhras.
Cheras
The kingdom of the
Cheras comprised of the modern state of
Kerala, along the western or
Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa. The current Indian state of
Kerala, which constitutes the ancient territories of the Cheras, although distinct today physically and culturally, was part of the Tamil country in the early historic period.
[History of Kerala - http://www.indiasite.com/kerala/history.html] The people spoke the same language and had extensive interaction with the rest of the Tamil country. It was only towards the ninth or the tenth centuries CE, their individual identity and language began to evolve.
["Malayalam first appeared in writing in the vazhappalli inscription which dates from about 830 AD. " - Omniglot - Writing Systems and Languages of the world (http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malayalam.htm)] |
Rock-cut images of Jain saints found near Gingee, Tamil Nadu. c. fifth century CE |
After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 CE to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE or a little later, the whole region was upset by the predatory activities of the
Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrow the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the country. Information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not leave any artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in
Buddhist and
Jain literature.
Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic towards the Hindu and Brahminical religions adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the Tamil region during the early centuries C.E.
[ Sastri, K.A. A History of South India pp 130] As a result Hindu scholars and authors who followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century C.E. may have expunged any mention of them in their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age' " an interregnum. Some of the ruling families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.
[KAN Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country. The northward migration probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Karikala Chola - Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 107] Jainism and
Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.
Writing became very widespread and
vatteluttu evolved from the
Tamil Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil.
[See http://www.ancientscripts.com/sa_ws.html] While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic poems of earlier centuries, several epic poems (
Cilappatikaram, etc.) and ethical works were also written in this period. The Jain and Buddhist scholars authored most of this literature. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronizing new polished styles, partly influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as
kottam,
devakulam, and
palli) dedicated to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.
[Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king - Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 102]The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries.
[See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935. pp 102] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.
The
Hindu sects
Saivism and
Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalance of Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and became more or less a state religion. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions.
Tamil script replaced the
vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period. The greatest epic in Tamil,
Kambar's Ramayanam, was written in the 13th century. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period were collected and systematized into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronized by the elite groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes.
Pallavas
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Shore Temple at Mamallapuram built by th Pallavas. (c. eight century) |
The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under
Mahendravarman I and his son
Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century CE. It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings.
[ Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., pp 68] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and
Rajasimha.
[See Nilakanta Sastry, K.A, History of South India] During the sixth and the seventh centuries CE, the western Deccan saw the rise of the
Chalukyas based in
Vatapi.
Pulakesi II (c.610 - 642 CE) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and took Vatapi. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750 CE. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava capital
Kanchipuram was occupied by
Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II.
Pallava Nandivarman II had a very long reign (731-796 CE). He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom (south
Mysore) in 760 CE. Pallava forces under him suffered defeat at the hands of the Pandya Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (765 " 815 CE).
Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river
Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts " against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.
Pandyas
Pandya Kadungon (560 " 590 CE) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south.
[See Encycloaedia Brittanica article http://www.britannica.com/e/article-9058245] Kadungo and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani were instrumental for the revival of the Pandya power. Another Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country and adapted the title Vanavan. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650 " 700 CE) had a long and prosperous ruke. He was a great soldier and fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. He also turned against the Pallavas and defeated Mahendravarman II.
After some decades of expansion, the Pandya kingdom was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power. Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with the
Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarmam. Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan also known as Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with some monor chieftains of Kongu and Keral countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840 CE.
The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the
Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and the Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the
Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c 848 CE). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.
Cholas
Around 850 CE, out of obscurity rose
Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured
Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son
Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 CE. In a battle that ensued, Aditya pounced upon Aparajita when he was mounted on an elephant and killed him. That spelt the end of the Pallava rule. The Chola kingdom under
Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.
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Extent of Chola empire c.1014 CE |
The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However the Chola revival begain with the accession of
Rajaraja Chola I. Under
Rajaraja Chola (Rajaraja
The Great) and his son
Rajendra Chola, they rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in
Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of
Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river
Ganges in
Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular
South India, annexed parts of
Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of
Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the
Srivijaya kingdom.
[See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935. pp 211 - 215 ] He defeated
Mahipala, the king of
Bihar and
Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (
the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of
Sri Lanka in the south to the
Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river
Ganges acknowledged Chola suzernity. Chola navies invaded and conquered
Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.
[The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman -Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 211-220] Chola armies exacted tribute from
Thailand and the
Khmer kingdom of
Cambodia.
[There is an inscription in the Chidambaram temple dated 1114 CE mentioning a peculiar stone presented by the king of Kambhoja (Kampuchea)to Rajendra Chola which the Chola king caused to be inserted into the wall of the Chidambaram shrine - Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 p 325 ] |
Detail of the main gopura (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple |
Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient
Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of
Lanka,
Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the
Chalukyas in the western
Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the
Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the
Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the River Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.
Virarajendra Chola's son
Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 CE and
Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the
Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king
Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118 CE they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king
Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas.
The Cholas under
Rajendra Chola III were experiencing a period of continuous trouble. During the close of the 12th century CE, the growing influence of the
Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the north. The local feudatories were also growing in courage and ambition to challenge the central Chola authority. The Cholas were exposed to assaults from within and without. The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power. Hoysalas in the west threatened the existence of the Chola empire. Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the two powers in turn. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. The Chola empire was completely absorbed by the Pandyan empire.
Pandya revival
After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Pandya glory was briefly revived by Jatavarman Sundara Pandya in 1251 CE and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the
Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. On the death of Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1308 CE, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya fought each other for the throne. Soon
Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the
Delhi Sultanate.
Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan
Alauddin Khilji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311 CE. Pandyas and their descendants where confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few more years.
Ravivarman Kulasekara (1299-1314), a
Chera feudatory of Kulasekara Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region from
Kanyakumari to
Kanchipuram, under the
Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in Punaamalli, a suburb of
Madras.
[See R. Nagasamy, Chera Coins - Tamil Conins, a Study http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html] Madurai Nayaks,
Tanjore Nayaks The fourteenth century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the
Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Hakka founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of
Vijayanagara in
Karnataka. Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 CE the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khilji army. Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayangara empire established local governors called
Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.
The Vijayanagar empire declined in 1564 CE defeated by the
Deccan sultans in the
battle of Talikota. The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The
Nayaks of
Madurai and
Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (1600-1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Danesborg at Tarangambadi This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631-1675 CE) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers was a striking feature in the religious architecture of this period.
In 1675, a column of Bijapur army came to Thanjavur to help Vijayaraghava and retrieved Vallam from the Madurai Nayak. However the same army subsequently killed Vijayaraghava Nayak and Ekoji managed to ascend the throne of Thanjavur kingdom. Thus began the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was
Serfoji II (1798-1832 CE). Serfoji devoted his life to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's patronised art and literature and built the
Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace.
In Madurai,
Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659 CE, the Madurai nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced.
Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability.
Rani Mangammal, a local ruler, tried to resist these invasions showing great courage.
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Fort St. George, Chennai. 18 century sketch. |
The political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general was one of confusion and chaos. With the demise of the
Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.
European settlements began to appear in Tamil Nadu during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605 CE, the Dutch established trading posts in the
Coromandel Coast near Jinji and in
Pulicat. The
British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 miles North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile long strip of land a fishing village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, Nayak of
Vandavasi. The East India Company built a fort (
Fort St George) and castle on an approximate 5 square kilometre sand strip. This was the start of the town of
Madras. The coromandel Coast was ruled by the Rajah of
Chandragiri, a descendant of the Vijayanagara kings. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.
Anglo French Conflicts
The French were relative newcomers to India. The
French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666, the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb's permission to trade in India. French soon setup trading posts in
Pondicherry on the Coromandal coast. They occupied Karaikkal in 1739 and
Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondicherry. In Europe
War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the English and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two nations along the Coromandal coast. The French led by
La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it.
Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle the English got back Madras.
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Muhammad Ali Khan, Nawab of Arcot |
The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. The positions of
Nawab of the Carnatic and
Nizam of Hyderabad were both taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. The Nawab of the Carnatic, Chanda Sahib, had been made Nawab with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mahommed Ali Wallajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took procession of it (1751). The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However The large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the English. The
Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 a farman (decree) from the Emperor of Delhi, recognizing the British possessions in southern India.
British Government Control
Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the
British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the company. The Company's financial position was also low and had to apply for a loan to the Parliament. Seizing this opportunity the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773. The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor-General.
Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784
Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.
The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the English. The
Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the
Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 to 1818 put the Company in control of most of India. In 1798
Marques Wellessly became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquitions in India destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the
Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The
Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. As a sign of things to come, in 1806 the soldiers of the
Vellore cantonment rebelled when Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that all caste marks should be abandoned by the native soldiers. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to
Christianity, the
soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed which resulted in 114 British officers killed and 19 mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in 1806.
[Vellore Revolt - http://www.vellorerevolt1806.info/index.html, Mutiny at Vellore:1806 - http://members.ozemail.com.au/~clday/vellore.htm]End of Company rule
The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the
Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown.
In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government was autocratic in every sense of the word. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Briton as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy
Ripon passed a resolution in 1884, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislations such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "
Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the
Madras Legislative Council. The non-cooperation movement started under
Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the
Government of India Act (also known as
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.
Nationalism and Independence struggle
The growing Nationalism and the desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of nationalists who fought the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are
Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British. The location of the French colony of
Pondicherry, offered a place of refuge for fugitive nationalists trying to flee the Police.
Aurobindo was one such nationalist living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet
Subramanya Bharathy was a contemporary of Aurobindo. Bharathy wrote numerous nationalist poems in
Tamil and published the journal
India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathy were associated with other Tamil nationalist such as V.V.S. Iyer and
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai.
Tamil people formed a significant percentage of the members of the
Indian National Army (INA), founded by
Netaji to fight the British occupation in India.
[ Article in The Hindu - Tamils' contribution to INA campaigns recalled - "Noting that the Tamils formed a large chunk of the strength of the INA, Prof. Pfaff, said it was always a moving experience to interact with the INA members from Tamil Nadu."][Article in The Hindu - The unsung heroes - "More than 75 per cent of the INA soldiers were Tamils" according to V. Vaidhyalingam, secretary and treasurer, Tamil Nadu Indian National Army League.] Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA.
In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the
Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian nationalist movements. During the 1920s two movements began Tamil Nadu focussed mainly on regional politics. One was the Justice party which won the local legislative elections held in 1921 and captured government. The
Justice Party was not focussed on the Indian nationalism, rather on the local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-hindu,
reformist movement led by
E.V. Ramasami Naicker. Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the
Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami Naicker with
C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.
The trauma of the
partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There were no widespread sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between the Hindus and the Muslims in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the
Madras Presidency.
C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the
first Chief Minister.
Evolution of Dravidian politics
Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (
DMK) in 1949 after splitting from
Dravidar Kazhagam. DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was for an Independent state called
Dravida Nadu or
Dravidastan (country of
Dravidians) comprising of Tamil Nadu and parts of
Andhra,
Karnataka and
Kerala. During fifties and sixties, several political changes led to the change of the nature of DMK and it began to get involved in electoral policies and abandon its secessionist agenda. In 1953, the Tamil Nadu state came in to being based on linguistic borders. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. The Dravidian movement attracted its following from devotees who were predominantly from middle or low-income families. DMK's support for literature and language also attracted numerous well-educated Tamil scholars and academics. Some of the policies of the Dravidian movement were adopted and implemented.
Affirmative action in employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of the Dravidian movement. The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors and literati in Annadurai and
Karunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage plays and movies to spread the messages of Tamil nationalism.
MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one of the stage and movie actors of the Dravidian movement.
In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split in to two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter
AIADMK. Since then the politcs of Tamil Nadu has been dominated by these two parties. AIADMK, under MGR retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually
J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.
Impact of Sri Lankan ethnic conflicts
On going
ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka resulted in the first Eelam War (1983-87) in 1983, following an ambush by Tamil guerrillas on the Sri Lankan army. The news of the ambush caused widespread outrage and a violent backlash against Tamils in the south of the island resulting in a large numbers of Tamils fleeing to the north, and from there to Tamil Nadu. The sudden appearance of over one hundred thousand displaced, embittered Tamils resulted in a surge of political support from the Dravidian political parties of Tamil Nadu. They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamil refugees. The two rival Dravidian parties aligned themselves with the corresponding rival groups fighting the Sri Lankan government. The Indian government of
Indira Gandhi supported the Tamil cause in Sri Lanka by sponsoring various militant groups. The
Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord of 1987 resulted in the
Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) deployed in the north of Sri Lanka and brought India directly in conflict with
LTTE, one of the main Tamil militant groups. The deployment ultimately proved to be a failure and the IPKF was withdrawn in early 1990.
Rajiv Gandhi, the Indian Prime Minister during this period was assassinated in May 1991 by an LTTE operative while campaigning in Tamil Nadu. This act and the war between the IPKF and LTTE caused a considerable cooling down of sympathy in the Dravidian parties towards the Sri Lankan Tamil cause.
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Chronology of Tamil history*
Chola dynasty*
Pandya*
Pallavas*
Chera
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