Homosexuality in Japan
Homosexuality has been recorded from ancient times in
Japan; indeed, at some times in Japanese history love between men was viewed as the purest form of love.
While homosexuality had never been viewed as a
sin in Japanese
society and
religion and was restricted by no specific legal prohibition, exposure to Western religious thought and the desire to appear "civilized" have influenced the way that homosexuality is viewed by both the Japanese government and by the population at large since the end of the nineteenth century.
 |
A Kabuki actor and rentboy charms his client with agreeable conversation; Print from Kitagawa Utamaro, The Pillow Book (Uta Makura), 1788. |
Historical sources
Available sources on homosexual behaviour in ancient Japan, as in ancient
China, are largely literary. Although a unified Japan existed from about the
4th century, Japan's written historical records really begin with the
Kojiki (古事記), or
Record of Ancient Matters [
1], compiled in the early
7th century. While Chinese references from the
6th century BCE contain homosexual references, similar references in Japan begin to appear in about the
10th century. These references, at least initially, appear to follow the Chinese example.
Etymology
Originally,
shudo, wakashudo and nanshoku were the preferred terms. Currently,
dōseiaisha (同性愛者, literally same-sex-loving person) has become the only term available.
The term
gay is almost never used in discussing ancient and historical sources because of the modern, western,
political connotations of the word and because the term suggests a particular identity, one with which homosexuals even in modern Japan may not identify.
More recently the contraction "homo" has been used; somewhat confusingly this term was used both positively and pejoratively. Nowadays the terms
gei (ゲイ, a transliteration of
gay) and
rezu or
rezubian (レズ、レズ"アン, transliterations of
lesbian) are the most common in the gay community, while pejorative terms like
okama (literally
cooking pot " probably an influence of the Portuguese slang for homosexuals,
paneleiro) are sometimes used.
Comparisons with the West
Unlike the West, in Japan sex was not viewed in terms of
morality, but rather in terms of pleasure, social position, and social responsibility. While modern attitudes to homosexuality have changed, this is largely true even today. Like the premodern West, however, only sexual acts were seen as being homosexual or heterosexual, not the people performing such acts.
The Japanese term
nanshoku ("色) is the Japanese reading of the same characters in Chinese, which literally mean "male colours." The character 色 still has the meaning of sexual pleasure in both China and Japan. This term was widely used to refer to male-male sex in ancient Japan.
According to Gary Leupp, the ancient Japanese associated
nanshoku with
China, a country from which borrowed ideas became the basis for much of Japanese high culture, including their writing system (
kanji, Chinese characters). The Japanese
nanshoku tradition drew heavily on that of China (see
Homosexuality in China), and to a more limited extent, that of
Korea.
A variety of obscure literary references to same-sex love exist in ancient sources, but many of these are so subtle as to be unreliable; another consideration is that declarations of affection for friends of the same sex were also common.
Nevertheless, references do exist, and they become more numerous in the
Heian Period, roughly the 11th century. In
Genji Monogatari (源氏物語,
The Tale of Genji), written in the early 11th century, men are frequently moved by the beauty of youths. In one scene the hero is rejected by a lady and sleeps instead with her brother:
Genji pulled the boy down beside him . . . Genji, for his part, or so:one is informed, found the boy more attractive than his chilly :sister.
The Tale of Genji is a novel (often considered the world's first), but there exist several Heian diaries which contain references to homosexual acts as well. Some of these also contain references to Emperors involved in homosexual relationships and to "handsome boys retained for sexual purposes" by Emperors.
[[Image:MORONOBU.JPG|left|thumb|440px|
Male couple on a futonEarly {{1680}}'s; One of the very first examples of hand-coloured {{ukiyo-e}} prints in the {{shunga}} (erotic) style.
{{Hishikawa Moronobu}} (1618-1694); "ban format, 10.25" x 15"; Sumi ink and color on paper; Private collection.]]
There can be found references to what Leupp has called "problems of gender identity" in other literary works, such as the story of a youth falling in love with a girl who is actually a cross-dressing male.
Monastic same-sex love
Buddhist monasteries appear to have been early centres of homosexual activity in ancient Japan. It was popularly said that
Kukai, the founder of the
Shingon Buddhist sect, introduced nanshoku into Japan after returning from
Tang China in the 9th century. However he does not discuss this theme in any of his major works. It should also be noted that
any sexual activity was expressly forbidden by the
Vinaya or code of monastic discipline for Buddhist monks, and Kukai was an enthusiastic upholder of the Vinaya. At the same time, Mount Koya, the seat of Kukai's monastery, became a by-word for same-sex love.
However neither
Shinto nor the Japanese interpretation of
Confucianism contained any prohibitions. Enough monks seem to have felt their vows of chastity did not apply to same-sex relations so that stories of affairs between monks and young acolytes, known as
Chigo Monogatari were quite popular, and such affairs were lightly joked about, when the passions did not rise to the level of violence, which was not uncommon. Jesuits reported aghast on the '
sodomy' that occurred among Buddhist clergy.
Military same-sex love
From religious circles, same-sex love spread to the warrior class, where it was customary for a young samurai to apprentice to an older and more experienced man. The young samurai would be his lover for many years. The practice was known as
shudo, the
way of the young, and was held in high esteem by the warrior class.
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Tryst between a samurai and a kabuki actor
In the Edo period (1600-1868) kabuki actors often doubled as sex workers off stage. This was especially true of those kabuki actors who played female roles, known as onnagata.) Kagema were male prostitutes who worked at specialist brothels called kagemajaya (kagema tea houses). Both kagema and kabuki actors were much sought after by the sophisticates of the day, who often practised nanshoku, or male love.
Miyagawa Isshô, ca. 1750; Panel from a series of ten on a shunga-style painted hand scroll (kakemono-e); sumi, colour and gofun on silk. Private collection. |
Middle class same-sex love
As Japanese society became pacified, the middle classes adopted many of the practices of the warrior class, in the case of shudo giving it a more mercantile interpretation. Young
kabuki actors, known as
kagema, became the rage, they were celebrated in much the same way as modern media stars are today, and were much sought after by wealthy patrons, who would vie with each other to purchase their favors[
2].
Art of same-sex love
These activities were the subject of countless literary works, most of which remain to be translated. Likewise, many of the greatest artists of the period, such as
Hokusai and
Hiroshige, prided themselves in documenting such loves in their prints, known as
ukiyo-e,
pictures of the floating world, and where they had an erotic tone,
shunga, or
pictures of spring[3].Popular Media
A number of "gay" personalities appear on television in Japan daily. Included are a number of popular drag queens, such as Miwa Akihiro and Mikawa Kenichi . The former, the grande dame of Japanese drag queens, with golden yellow hair, is the television advertisement spokesperson for many Japanese companies ranging from beauty to financial products and TEPCO. Many other personalities may not be homosexual, but use drag or a feminine image as their moniker, as it were, such as Toru Yamazaki. Another,
Hard Gay (HG) Razor Ramon, a leather-harness wearing muscular comedian whose gag is to pump his leather hot-panted hips and scream WAHOO! is heterosexual. Presently, there is an on-going debate in the Japanese gay community whether HG is a positive image or not. In recent years, a small number of Japanese artists have spoken publicly about their homosexuality, including dancer and tarento Kaba-chan, tarento Gakuseifuku Sakamoto-chan and ikebana master Shougo Kariyazaki. Other gay personalities include twin brother pop-culture critics Piko and Osugi, and tranvestite/transsexual/new half entertainer Peter-san. No popular female personalities have come out of the closet in Japan, although rumours swirl around many, as they do around many of their male counterparts. To encourage and empower Japanese lesbians, one courageous assemblywoman from Osaka, Kanako Otsuji, took the plunge in 2005 by writing and speaking out about being a lesbian and life with her partner. The reasons for the dearth of out personalities is as many as the number of closeted personalities. Perhaps one reason is the fear, real or not, that publicly speaking about one's homosexuality will sink one's career.
Anime and manga
Many
anime and
manga contain gay male content; These are marketed primarily to women, and are commonplace in bookstores. Several terms are used in Japan to describe these.
The blanket term "
yaoi" is an acronym for the phrase "Yama nashi, ochi nashi, imi nashi", which means "no peak, no point, no meaning". (A folk etymology derives it from "Yamete, oshiri (ga) itai" which literally means "Stop, my butt hurts!") "
JUNE" refers to plots containing homosexual romance and drama that features mature adult male characters. "BL" (abbreviated from "Boys' Love") refers to stories that either contain younger characters, or more light-hearted romance (as an alternative to more sexual content). The phrase "Shōnen-ai", translated from Japanese as "boy love", is becoming obsolete among its following, and has come to refer to comics featuring romance between underaged boys, either with one another or with older men. (Similar to "
shotacon")
Among the large fan demographics in North America and Europe, this terminology is more or less condensed to "yaoi" and "shōnen-ai"; "Yaoi" is used in reference to graphic descriptions of homosexual sex and/or adult drama, and "shōnen-ai" is used in reference to romantic situations with younger characters that are now referred to as "BL" by the Japanese.
Lesbian content is much less widespread, but does exist, and is known as shōjo-ai when romantic, or
yuri when sexual. However, yuri is much more often a catch-all term than yaoi, respectively, possibly due to the distribution of each.
Some manga, generally appealing more overtly to prurient interest, are directly aimed at the gay market. These, however, are uncommon and generally not found except in speciality shops.
The Japanese legal code only indirectly address the issue of
homosexuality. Technically homosexual relations between consenting adults (13) in private are not a crime. However, some local governments or
prefectures have enacted laws that effectively raise the age of consent for homosexual conduct to eighteen, on the grounds of protecting the youth.
Prostitution is illegal under the
1958 "ProstitutionPrevention Act" however, because homosexuality is not seen as sexual conduct in the criminal code but rather define it as "seikou-ruiji-kōi" (similar to sexual conduct) homosexual prostitution is often dealt with other local laws.
The
Japanese Self Defence Force does not formally bar volunteers on the basis of
sexual orientation but in
1992 a representative for the SDF stated that there are no homosexuals in the Defence Force, suggesting that openly gay servicemen or lesbian servicewomen could be punished for their sexuality.
Japanese civil rights laws do not include protection from discrimination on the basis of
sexual orientation or
gender identity. However, in
1997 the group OCCUR (Japan Association for the Lesbian and Gay Movement) won a court case against a Tokyo government policy that barred gay and lesbian youth from using the "Metropolitan House for Youth." However, the court ruling does not seem to have extended to other areas of government sponsored discrimination.
In terms of
transgender issues, the Japan's Health and Welfare Ministry modified its policy in
1998 to allow doctors in Japan to perform gender-reassignment surgeries.
The major Japanese political parties do not express much public support for
LGBT rights issues. In
1994 the then Foreign Minister Koji Kakizawa stated in Shokun! Magazine that he was opposed to his party simply calling themselves the Liberals, because it might lead people to believe that they supported "homos". (It should be noted that the Japanese word for "homosexual" or "gay person" is literally "homo", borrowed from the English word "homosexual" and shortened, as is oftened done, to "homo." It is not a
pejorative term in Japanese, it is the only term.) Both the ruling
Liberal Democrats and
Komei pledges to oppose all discrimination that women face, but does not address the issue of
sexual orientation. Likewise the major opposition party, the
Democratic Party of Japan only offers a broad endorsement of equal opportunity. Yet, even the minor political parties have been reluctant to publicly endorse
gay rights [
4].
The defunct Japanese Green Party
Rainbow and Green refused to address the issue, although as a part of the "
Global Greens" movement they technically had endorsed a broad human rights agenda that included
gay rights. The
Liberal League homepage states that it opposes "any form of discrimination". Likewise the Japanese Communist Party also avoids the issue.
In
2001 The Council for Human Rights Promotion, under the Ministry of Justice, recommended that
sexual orientation be included in the nation's civil rights code, but the
Diet has refused to take action.
In
2002 Taiga Ishikawa, authored a book about being gay in Japan titled "Where Is My Boyfriend?" (ボクの彼氏はど"にいる？)
In
2003 Aya Kamikawa became the first
transgender candidate to run for public office in Japan, Tokyo's municipal government.
In
2004 Kazuhito Tadano, a heterosexual Japanese baseball pitcher joined the American
Cleveland Indians after being publicly blacklisted from playing on Japanese baseball teams. It had been previously revealed that he had acted in a gay
pornographic film, along with other team members, when he was a member of the
Rikkyo University baseball team.
In
2005 Kanako Otsuji, from the Osaka Prefectural Assembly, became the first Japanese politician to formally come out at the Tokyo Gay Pride Festival [
5].
Despite the recent trends that suggest a new level of tolerance, most people who are gay in Japan remain in the closet, even marry, to avoid discrimination, as can be seen from recent press interview from a gay foreigner living in Japan [
6].
The following is a list of Japanese
gay slang from various periods. General time period is given where information is available.
;Anaru (アナル):Anal sex. In current use.
Barazoku ("薇族):Literally "Rose tribe,"
Barazoku was the name of Japan's first and longest-running
gay magazine, which ceased publication in 2005. Its name became synonymous with "gay" (see
Friend of Dorothy).
Futsū (普通):Literally "normal": heterosexual, a heterosexual person.
Jani, Janī (ジャニ, ジャニー) :From the English name Johnny. Refers to young, slim, boyish-looking, "cute" men (compare
twink). Taken from the name of a talent agency
Johnny & Associates, known for producing
boy bands such as
Kinki Kids and
Smap. Jani-kei (ジャニ系, ジャニー系) means "jani-type."
Kagema (陰"):Literally "hidden room," this term was commonly used in the
Edo period to refer to male prostitutes whose customers were also male, and was roughly synonymous with
faggot. A
kagemajaya (陰"茶屋) was a tea house specializing in male prostitutes.
Ketsuman:A
portmanteau of the words
ketsu and
manko literally meaning "ass
cunt," this word usually describes the anus of an effeminate male bottom. Compare "mangina"; "man-cunt."
Kuma (熊, クマ):A
bear (a hairy, sometimes overweight man). In current use. Kuma-kei (熊系, クマ系) means "bear-type."
Nekama (ネカマ):From the words "net" (
Internet) and "kama" (see O-kama, below), this word can refer to men who pretend to be women in online
chat rooms, or to gay men who engage in
cybersex.
Neko (ネコ):Literally "cat" (and sometimes written with the
kanji for cat, though more often in
katakana, as above), this word refers to the
bottom, or passive/receptive partner, especially in anal sex. The etymology is unclear. In current use.
Nonke (ノンケ):"Non-gay": a heterosexual, a straight person.
Nyū dandi (ニューダンディ): "New dandy." Used to refer to cross-dressing women or
butch lesbians.
Nyū hāfu (ニューハーフ): From the English words "new half," this term is used to refer to
transsexuals, mostly male-to-female. Sometimes used pejoratively.
O-kama (お釜, おかま):Literally "a pot, a kettle" this word, always with the
honorific prefix "O-," refers to a gay man, especially one who is viewed as effeminate. Sometimes applies to
drag queens. Can be pejorative. The word originated in Edo period slang for the
anus. In current use.
Okoge:A term for the burnt rice that sticks to the bottom of a cooking pot, this currently-used word refers to the straight, female friends of gay males. See
Fag hag.
Onabe (お鍋, おなべ):Literally "a pot," this word refers to
lesbians or occasionally to female
cross-dressers. Often pejorative. Invented in modern time out of Okama.
Onnagirai (女嫌い):Literally "woman-hater." This term was used in the Edo period to describe a man who preferred male erotic and romantic companionship exclusively.
Rezu (レズ):Rezubian is a transliteration, and rezu a contraction, of the
English word
lesbian.
Seme ("め、セメ）:Seme comes from the word "semeru" ("める) which means "to attack." Refers to the dominant partner in the relationship (as opposed to Uke (受け、ウケ)). In use.
S"futei sekkusu (セーフティーセックス):
Safe sex.
Tachi (立ち, タチ):The
top, or active/insertive partner, especially in
anal sex. There are various theories about the
etymology of the word, but it is widely thought to come from a term in
kabuki. In current use.
Uke (受け, ウケ):From the verb "ukeru," to receive, this term is used for the "passive" or receptive partner in anal sex. In current use.
*
Homosexuality*
History of Sexuality*
Homosexuality in China*
Homosexuality in Singapore*Bornoff, Nicholas.
Pink Samurai: Love, Marriage & Sex in Contemporary Japan.
*Leupp, Gary.
Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1997.
Sexuality in ancient Japan
*The Way of the Samurai (English)
**http://members.aol.com/matrixwerx/glbthistory/samarai.htm
*The "Beautiful Way" of the Samurai (English)
**http://www.androphile.org/preview/Culture/Japan/japan.htm
Sexuality in modern Japan
*Gender and sexuality in Japanese Anime (English)
**http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-rol4.htm
Other
*Homosexuality in the Japanese Buddhist Tradition
**http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol3/homosexuality.html
*Bibliography of Gay and Lesbian History
**http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/biborien.htm
*Yaji and Kita: The Midnight Pilgrims (also known as Yajikita) Gay Samurai movie - review on outrate.net
**http://outrate.net/outrateyajikita.html
