I, Claudius
I, Claudius is a
novel by
English writer
Robert Graves, first published in
1934, that deals sympathetically with the life of the
Roman Emperor Claudius and the history of the
Julio-Claudian Dynasty and
Roman Empire, from
Julius Caesar's assassination in
44 BC to
Caligula's assassination in
AD 41. Graves's interpretation of the story owes much to the biographies of
Tacitus,
Plutarch, and (most especially)
Suetonius. Graves continued his tale (from Claudius' accession after Caligula's death to his death in
54, as well as a
segue involving the early life of
Herod Agrippa) in
Claudius the God (
1935). Both books were adapted into an award-winning miniseries, also entitled
I, Claudius, which consisted of 13 installments and first aired on the
BBC in 1976.
Content
I, Claudius and
Claudius the God were written as if they were the secret autobiography of
Claudius, the fourth emperor of Rome (41-54). The historical Claudius was kept out of public life by his family, the Julio-Claudians, until his sudden elevation at the age of 49. This was due to several pecularities on his part â€" including a
stammer, a
limp, and various
nervous tics, which made him appear mentally addled to his relatives. This is how he was defined by scholars for most of history. Robert Graves claimed that Claudius came to him in a dream one night after reading
Suetonius, and demanded that his real story be told. The life of Claudius provided Graves with a way to write about the first four emperors from an intimate, yet unintrusive, point of view. In addition, the real Claudius was a trained historian, and is known to have written an autobiography (now lost) in eight books that covered the same time period.
I, Claudius is a first person narrative of Roman history from the reigns of Augustus to Caligula;
Claudius the God is written as a later addition documenting Claudius' own reign.
Claudius writes his memoirs in
Greek, which he believes will remain "the chief literary language of the world." This allows Graves to explore the etymology of Latin words (like the origins of the names "Livia" and "Caesar") that would otherwise be apparent to a native-born Latin speaker like Claudius.
Themes
The message of the story appears to concern the relationship between liberty (as demonstrated by the
Roman Republic, and the dedication to its ideals shown by
Augustus and young
Claudius) and stability (as demonstrated by
Empress Livia,
Herod Agrippa, and the elder Claudius). The Republic provided for freedom, but was inherently unstable and threw the doors open for endless civil wars, of which the last was ended by Augustus after twenty years of fighting. While Augustus harbours Republican sentiments, his wife Livia manages to convince him that to lay down his Imperial powers would be to destroy the peaceful society they have made. Likewise, when the similarly-minded Claudius becomes emperor, he is convinced by
Empress Messalina and Herod to preserve his powers, for much the same reason. However, Graves acknowledges that there must be a delicate balance between Republican liberty and Imperial stability; whereas too much of the former led to civil war, too much of the latter led to the corruption of
Tiberius,
Caligula,
Messalina,
Sejanus,
Herod Agrippa,
Nero,
Agrippinilla, and countless others â€" as well as, to a lesser extent,
Livia and
Claudius himself.
Near the end of
Claudius the God, Graves introduces another idea: that when a formerly-free nation has lived under a dictatorship for too long, it is incapable of returning to free rule. This is highlighted by Claudius' failed attempts to revive the Republic; by the attempts of various characters to 'restore' the Republic but with themselves as the true rulers; and by Claudius noting that 'by dulling the blade of tyranny, I reconciled Rome to the monarchy' â€" i.e., in his attempts to rule autocratically but along more Republican lines, he has only made the Roman people more complacent about their dictatorship.
There also seems to be a subtle feminist message, in line with other works of Graves's: Julia, Livia, Drusilla, Messalina, and Agripinilla are quite obviously the powers behind their husbands, fathers, brothers, and/or sons. One good example of this is provided by Augustus and Livia: whereas he would have inadvertently caused civil war, she managed, through quiet manipulation, to preserve the peace. The female characters are all somewhat representative of Graves' muse,
Laura Riding. This is particularly true of Agrippinilla â€" power hungry, overconfident, and jealous of others. Graves' relationship with Riding was falling apart as
I, Claudius was written, and this portrayal could not have helped matters.
Another common theme throughout the novels is the reality and validity of the Roman religion. All Prophecies made in the narrative come to pass, from the succession of the Caesars, to the "discovery" of the secret autobiography, to the date of Claudius' death. This is the major form of foreshadowing in the narrative.
Historical accuracy
The novels are extremely well researched and composed works, however their sympathetic nature must be noted. The novels were written as if Claudius were narrating his own life, and so are very subjective in its portrayal of the character of Claudius and his situation. Graves took great pains to make the narration plausible, mostly by the inclusion of some of the historical Claudius' own words and thoughts. This is especially evident in
Claudius the God, where the majority of the book covers the works of Claudius' reign before delving into his personal life. The historical Claudius' extant speech to the senate on voting and juries, his translated letters to the residents of
Trent and the
Alexandrians, and the text of the
Lyon Tablet are all included. Besides this, Graves worked in arguments said to have been made by the historical Claudius in favour of his policies, such as the reasoning for the
Claudian letters, as outlined by Tacitus.
However, Graves was selective in his use of the ancient sources (primarily Tacitus and Suetonius), trusting their assessments only when it fit the situation. For example, the worst allegations against Tiberius and Caligula are repeated as fact, while similar allegations against Augustus are pinned on Livia's influence. Livia is made to confess to murders (Augustus, Gaius, and Lucius) that she is only alleged to have performed in a single ancient source (Tacitus). A common charge of the ancient historians against Claudius is that he was easily ruled by his wives and freedmen. Graves rejected this assertion when it comes to Claudius' major works and good deeds â€" as do modern historians. However, he accepts this same explanation as an excuse for the less acceptable or understandable actions of the historical Claudius. In
Claudius the God, all capital executions are blamed on the scheming of Messalina, Agrippinilla,
Narcissus, and
Pallas. Graves carries this to the point where nearly all the dead seem to be innocent of any crime. This is clearly at odds with the records. The historical Claudius was the subject of more assassination attempts than any emperor before, as Caligula's death revealed that an emperor could indeed be killed and replaced. Undoubtedly some of those condemned for treason were guilty and deserved execution, while others were wrongly accused.
Another case where Graves uses the accusations to absolve Claudius concerns the adoption of Nero. Graves has Claudius give in to every one of Agrippinilla's demands in order to show Rome the face of real tyranny. The problem of adopting an heir above Britannicus never comes up, until a strange plot is revealed at the end. In reality, the motivations for the adoption of an older teenager were probably political. It was probably done in order to preserve Claudius' rule by indicating that a mature heir was ready (so no usurper could grab power). As Britannicus approached manhood in 54, the historical Claudius made preparations to name him the heir apparent (or co-heir), right on schedule. If Claudius is credited with all the accomplishments of his reign, he must be credited with the pitfalls as well, whether it is the result of justified cautiousness, mistaken reasoning, failure to foresee future effects, paranoia, or even overtrust of his advisors. This issue has been one of the major complaints about the novels by modern historians.
The last major case of Graves' tendency to follow sources selectively is when Claudius' accession is instigated by Herod Agrippa. This is based on an account by
Josephus where the role of Agrippa is played up in order to show how Jews had helped Rome. This account fit with Graves' portrayal of Claudius as a republican, as it explained how Claudius could unwillingly come to power. However, this is inaccurate in the view of both modern historians and the rest of the ancient sources (including another account by Josephus). Nearly everyone in Rome sensed the plot against Caligula, and the historical Claudius was no exception, though he did not have a direct hand in it. After Caligula's murder, Claudius was faced with a choice of either becoming emperor or being killed, and chose naturally. There is no indication of republican hesitancy on his part in the record, aside from Josephus' claim.
Graves broke with historical fact when it fit with the narrative. There is no historical evidence of the withdrawn, almost suicidal Claudius of the end of
Claudius the God â€" a Claudius completely under the control of
Agrippinilla in all areas. The historical Claudius continued to be politically active after the fall of Messalina, and is noted to have fought with Agrippina over the succession until his murder. Graves seems to have based his view on Victorian scholarship that painted the second half of Claudius' reign as a wash. An inactive period would more readily fit in with Graves' idea about the effects of tyranny. Another example of change from the historical record is the prophecy of Claudius' death. The problem in any fictional autobiography is that a person cannot foresee their own murder, or they would prevent it. However, the prophecy allowed Graves to give the reader a real conclusion to the story that would otherwise have been impossible.
A few minor discrepancies are due to research performed after the books were first published. The current consensus is that Claudius suffered from
cerebral palsy, not
infantile paralysis as noted in the novels. Graves himself confirmed this in a later interview (he referred to it as "Little's disease"). Another concerns the age of Messalina at the time of their marriage. At the time
I, Claudius was written, Messalina was considered to be a child-bride of 14 years of age. It is now known that Messalina's younger half-brother
Faustus Sulla was at least 17 when this occurred. Messalina was therefore in her early to mid-twenties, and probably already once-divorced. Any historical novel can only be as accurate as the historical consensus of its time allows.
Success
The Claudius novels, as they are called collectively, became a huge hit when first published in 1934. They are probably
Robert Graves' best known work aside from his own autobiography
Goodbye to All That. Despite their critical and monetary success, Graves later professed a dislike for the books and their popularity. He claimed that they were written only from financial need on a strict deadline.
The book was to have been adapted into a
1937 film, produced by
Alexander Korda and starring
Charles Laughton, but it was dogged by ill-luck, culminating in a serious accident involving the female star,
Merle Oberon, which caused filming to be abandoned. Some rushes still exist; the
BBC featured them in a programme about Claudius that is included in the
I, Claudius DVD Box Set. The documentary is 70 minutes long and includes about 25 minutes of original footage from the cancelled film.
In
1976, the book, together with its sequel, was adapted for television by the
BBC, and proved one of the corporation's most successful drama serials of all time.
The major cast included:
*
Derek Jacobi as
Claudius*
Siân Phillips as
Livia*
George Baker as
Tiberius*
John Hurt as
Caligula *
Brian Blessed as
Augustus.
*
Patrick Stewart as
Sejanus*
Margaret Tyzack as
Antonia*
Patricia Quinn as
Livilla*
John Paul as
Marcus Agrippa*
Sheila White as
Messalina*
Christopher Biggins as
Nero*
Ian Ogilvy as
Drusus*
David Robb as
Germanicus*
John Castle as
Postumus*
Fiona Walker as
Agrippina*
Frances White as
Julia*
James Faulkner as
Herod*
Kevin McNally as
Castor*
John Rhys-Davies as
Macro*
Christopher Guard as
Marcellus*
Stratford Johns as
Piso*
Bernard Hepton as
Pallas*
John Cater as
Narcissus*
Barbara Young as
Agrippinilla*
Beth Morris as
Drusilla*
Simon MacCorkindale as
Lucius*
Sheila Ruskin as
Vipsania*
Angela Morant as
Octavia*
Graham Seed as
Britannicus*
Jo Rowbottom as
Calpurnia*
Sam Dastor as
Cassius*
Kevin Stoney as
Thrasyllus*
Freda Dowie as
Caesonia &
Sibyl*
Irene Hamilton as
Plancina*
Darien Angadi as
Plautius*
Peter Bowles as
Caractacus*
Norman Eshley as
Marcus*
John Bennett as
Xenophon*
Patsy Byrne as
Martina*
Douglas Melbourne as
Gemellus*
Karin Foley as
Helen*
Earl Rhodes as
Gaius*
Richard Hunter as
Drusus Caesar*
Russell Lewis as
Young Lucius*
Robert Morgan as
Young Caligula*
Cheryl Johnson as
Claudia Octavia*
Sam Dastor as
Cassius*
Isabel Dean as
Lollia*
Liane Aukin as
Aelia*
Moira Redmond as
Domitia*
Bernard Hill as
GratusWilfred Josephs provided the suitably eerie title music. Among other awards, the series won three
BAFTAs in 1977 (Derek Jacobi, Best Actor (TV); Siân Phillips, Best Actress (TV); Tim Harvey, Best Design (TV)).
Production of the series was delayed because of complex negotiations between the BBC and the copyright holders of the aborted film version. This did however give the scriptwriter Jack Pulman, who would die in 1979, more time to fine-tune his script.
The series was subsequently broadcast in the
United States as part of
PBS's
Masterpiece Theatre series, where it was widely acclaimed. It has come to be widely regarded as one of the best television series ever made. In a list of the
100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the
British Film Institute in
2000, voted for by industry professionals,
I, Claudius was placed 12th.
Most VHS and DVD versions of the TV series include a BBC documentary on the Korda film project called
The Epic That Never Was, featuring interviews with key production staff and actors as well as most of the surviving footage. The
2002 UK DVD edition also contains a documentary on the series,
I, Claudius â€" a Television Epic, as well as some alternate and deleted scenes.
The series is often referred to in popular culture as
I, CLAVDIVS ("eye klav divz"), from its title sequence in which the name is styled in capitals of the Old Roman alphabet, which had no letter U, but used V to double for vowel U and consonantal U (a W sound). The writhing snake is also referenced in the title sequence of
Blackadder II.
The Canadian
independent film I, Claudia was inspired in title by this book. Another title punning
I, Claudius is the book
I & Claudius: Travels with My Cat by
Clare de Vries about the author's drive across the United States with her old
Burmese cat.
Sesame Street's
Monsterpiece Theatre also has aired a parody of the play (
Me, Claudius). When the re-cut version of the infamous
Gore Vidal-penned motion picture
Caligula was released in Italy, it was re-titled
Io, Caligola, in order to capitalize on the acclaim of Graves' work.
*"...as for being "half-witted", what can I say... except that I have survived to middle age, with half my wits,
while thousands have died with all of theirs intact!" â€" Derek Jacobi as Claudius, upon being installed (against his will) by the Roman military.
Count Belisarius*
Tacitean studies*
I, Claudius Project (concentrates on the BBC production)*
Encyclopedia of Television*
British Film Institute Screen Online (TV series)
