Individualism
Individualism is a term used to describe a moral, political, or social outlook, that stresses human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty. Individualists promote the unrestricted exercise of individual goals and desires. They oppose any external interference with an individual's choices - whether by
society, the
state, or any other group or institution. Individualism is therefore opposed to
collectivism, which stresses community and societal goals over individual goals.
Individualism has a controversial relationship with
egoism (selfishness). While many individualists are egoists, they usually do not argue that selfishness is inherently good. Rather, they argue that individuals should not be constrained by any socially-imposed
morality; they believe that individuals should be free to choose to be selfish (or to choose any other lifestyle) if they so desire.
The concept of "individualism" was first used by the French
Saint-Simonian socialists, to describe what they believed was the cause of the desintegration of French society after the 1789 Revolution. The term was however already used (pejoratively) by
reactionary thinkers of the French Theocratic School, such as
Joseph de Maistre, in their opposition to political liberalism. The Saint-Simonians did not see political liberalism as the problem though, but saw in "individualism" a form of "egoism" or "anarchy," the "ruthless exploitation of man by man in modern industry." While the conservative anti-individualists attacked the political egalitarianism brought about by the Revolution, the Saint-Simonians criticized
laissez-faire (economic liberalism), for its perceived failure to cope with the increasing inequality between rich and poor.
Socialism, a word introduced by the Saint-Simonians, was to bring about "social harmony."
In the
English language, the word "individualism" was first introduced, as a pejorative, by the
Owenites in the 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently.
, whose book
Democracy in America was translated in
English in 1840 (published in French in 1835) used the term as well.
["Individualism", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2005.] He was very critical of the concept, describing it as a sort of "moderate selfishness" that disposed human beings to be concerned only with themselves and their families, leading to a decline of society:
In political philosophy, the individualist theory of
government holds that the state should take a merely defensive role by protecting the liberty of each individual to act as he or she wishes as long he or she does not infringe on the same liberty of another. This contrasts with collectivist political theories, where, rather than leaving the individual to pursue his or her own ends, the state ensures that the individual serves the interests of society when taken as a whole. The term has also been used to describe "individual initiative" and "freedom of the individual" in general, perhaps best described by the French term "
laissez faire," a verb meaning "to let [the people] do" [for themselves what they know how to do].
In practice, individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state). Many individualists pay particular attention to protecting the liberties of the minority against the wishes of the majority and see the individual as the smallest minority. For example, individualists oppose
democratic systems unless constitutional protections exist that do not allow individual liberty to be diminished by the interests of the majority. These concerns encompass both civil and economic liberties. One typical concern is opposition to any concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state, and the municipality. The principles upon which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly-elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications, or the sense of responsibility, required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises, and the large sums of public money involved in civic administration; and that the "health of the state" depends upon the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit (who, "like cells", are the containers of the life of the body). Individualism may take a radicalist approach, as in
individualist anarchism.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "
social contract" maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the "general will." This advocacy of subordinating the individual will to a collective will is in fundamental opposition to the individualist philosophy. An individualist enters into society to further his own interests, or at least demands the
right to serve his own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration (an individualist need not be an
egoist). The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any higher social causes. Rousseau would argue, however, that his concept of "general will" is not the simple collection of individual wills and precisely furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of
law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of
ignorance and submission to one's
passions instead of the preferred
autonomy of
reason).
Societies and groups can differ, in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and arguably self-interested) rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviour. There is also a distinction, relevant in this context, between "guilt" societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard", and "shame" societies (e.g. Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback, as to whether an action is "acceptable" or not (also known as "group-think").
The extent to which society, or groups are "individualistic" can vary from time to time, and from country to country. For example, Japanese society is more group-oriented (e.g. decisions tend to be taken by consensus among groups, rather than by individuals), and it has been argued that "personalities are less developed" (than is usual in the West). The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say "
atomistic") end of the spectrum (the term "Rugged Individualism" is a cultural imprint of being the essence of Americanism), whereas
European societies are more inclined to believe in "public-spiritedness", state "socialistic" spending, and in "public" initiatives.
John Kenneth Galbraith made a classic distinction between "private affluence and public squalor" in the USA, and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation.
Individualism is often contrasted with either
totalitarianism or
collectivism, but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviours ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g. the USA) through mixed societies (a term the
UK has used in the post-
World War II period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of
anarchism or
libertarian socialism) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices.
Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of
individualist anarchism,
libertarianism or
classical liberalism, typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or
society has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries.
The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, or the community, for him. Moreover, it advocates the private ownership of property as opposed to state or collective arrangements.
Capitalism is often said to be an economic system based on these views. There radical form of capitalism that adheres very strictly to the views of economic individualism is called
laissez-faire capitalism.
Critics of modern capitalism sometimes argue that capitalism is not based on individuals but largely on firms and
institutions, and that individuals' roles are largely determined by these institutions. However, compared to various forms of political
collectivism, capitalism is usually still considered as individualistic since participation in these institutions is
voluntary and an individual choice. Yet, capitalism can also thrive in certain
collectivistic societies with individual choice. The only difference is what the choice is based on: individual need versus collective need.
At the time of the formation of the
United States, many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the
French revolution. Such ideas influenced the framers of the
U.S. Constitution (the Jeffersonian
Democratic-Republicans) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the
Bill of Rights.
Individualism has negative connotations in certain societies and environments where it is associated with selfishness. For example, individualism is highly frowned upon in most East Asian countries where self-interested behavior is traditionally regarded as a kind of
betrayal of those to whom one has obligations (e.g.
family and firm). The absence of
universal health care in the United States, which traces back to a belief in individual (rather than societal) responsibility, is widely criticised in Europe and other countries where universal health care (usually funded through general taxation) supposedly protects individuals from the vagaries of health problems.
Proponents of such public initiatives and
social responsibility argue that their policies are beneficial for the individual, and that excessive individualism may actually hurt the individuals themselves. Opponents hold that such public initiatives may have
unintended consequences beyond the issues they are intended to address. Many individualists find the "beneficial to the individual" argument irrelevant and argue that individualism is not about individual benefit so much as individual choice.
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Adam Smith The Wealth of Nations*
Frederic Bastiat The State*
Ayn Rand Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal*
Karl Popper The Open Society and Its Enemies *
Lawrence Kohlberg Six Stages of Moral Development*
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Anarchism*
Collectivism (antaonym)
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Anarcho-capitalism*
Contrarian*
Individualist anarchism*
Libertarianism*
Existentialism*
Self-ownership*
Tragedy of the commons*
Tragedy of the anticommons*
The New Individualist magazine
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Individual-I*
Individualistic sensitivity by
Georges Palente roughly translated into English
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Manifesto by
Josiah Warren Classic individualist treatise by the first American anarchist
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The Individualist on MSN Spaces
