Infinitive
In
grammar,
infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages. In
English, the infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the
particle to: so,
do and
to do,
be and
to be, and so on are infinitives. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition of
infinitive that applies to all languages; however, in languages that have infinitives, they generally have most of the following properties:
*In most of their uses, infinitives are
non-finite verbs.
*They function as other
lexical categories " usually
nouns " within the clauses that contain them, for example by serving as the subject of another verb.
*They do not represent any of the verb's
arguments (as
employer and
employee do).
*They are not
inflected to agree with any subject, and their subject, if they have one, is not
case-marked as such.
*They cannot serve as the only verb of a declarative sentence.
*They are the verb's
lemma,
citation form, and/or
name; that is, they are regarded as its basic uninflected form, and/or they are used in giving its definition or conjugation.
*They do not have
tense,
mood,
aspect, and/or
voice, or they are limited in the range of tenses, moods, aspects, and/or voices that they can use.
*They are used with
auxiliary verbs.
However, it bears repeating that none of the above is a defining quality of the infinitive; infinitives do not have all these properties in every language, and other verb forms may have one or more of them. (For example, English's
gerunds and
participles have most of these properties as well.)
English has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term "infinitive" is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-
participle forms, where the present-participle form is also the
gerund form.) In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as
be,
do,
have, or
sit, often introduced by the
particle to. When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a
bare infinitive; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the
full infinitive (or
to-infinitive), and some grammarians hold that it should not be separated from the main word of the infinitive. (
See split infinitive.)
The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the to-infinitive.
Uses of the bare infinitive
The bare infinitive is used in a rather limited number of contexts, but some of these are quite common:
*The bare infinitive is used as the
main verb after the dummy auxiliary verb
do, or any
modal auxiliary verb (such as
will,
can, or
should), except that
ought usually takes a to-infinitive. So, "I will/do/can/etc.
see it."
*Several common verbs of perception, including
see,
watch,
hear,
feel, and
sense take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it
happen." (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: "I saw/watched/heard/etc. it
happening." The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.)
*Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including
make,
bid,
let, and
have. So, "I made/bade/let/had him
do it." (However,
make takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: "I was made
to do it.")
*The bare infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, "The word
'amble' means 'to walk slowly.'"
*The bare infinitive form is also the present
subjunctive form and the
imperative form, although most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive.
Uses of the full infinitive
The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts:
*Apart from in dictionary lemmata, the full infinitive is the most commonly used
citation form of the English verb: "How do we conjugate the verb
to go?"
*It can serve as an ordinary noun, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, "
To be is
to do." (A
gerund can also be used for this: "
Being is
doing.")
*It can serve as an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, "He is
[supposed] to die at noon," or "
[In order] to meditate, one must free one's mind."
*In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition
for: "
For him to fail now would be a great disappointment"; "
[In order] for you to get there on time, you'll need to leave now." (The former sentence could also be written, "His failing now would be a great disappointment.")
*It can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I agreed
to leave," or "He failed
to make his case." (This may be considered a special case of the noun use above.)
*It can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, "I convinced him
to leave with me," or "He asked her
to make his case on his behalf."
*As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition
for: "I arranged
for him to accompany me," or "I waited
for summer to arrive."
When the verb is implied, some dialects will reduce the to-infinitive to simply
to: "Do I have
to?"
The infinitive with auxiliary verbs
The auxiliary verb
do does not have an infinitive - even though
do is also a main verb and in that sense is often used in the infinitive. One does not say
I asked to do not have to, but rather, either
I asked not to have to or
I asked to not have to (but
see split infinitive). Similarly, one cannot emphasize an infinitive using
do; one cannot say, "I hear him do say it all the time."
Nonetheless, the auxiliary verbs
have (used to form the
perfect aspect) and
be (used to form the
passive voice and
continuous aspect) both commonly appear in the infinitive: "It's thought
to have been a ceremonial site," or "I want
to be doing it already."
Defective verbs
The
modal auxiliary verbs,
can,
may,
shall,
will and
must are
defective in that they do not have infinitives; so, one cannot say,
I want him to can do it, but rather must say,
I want him to be able to do it. The circumlocutions
to be able to,
to have to and
to be going to are generally used in these cases.
The original Germanic suffix of the infinitive was
-an, with verbs derived from other words ending in
-jan or
-janan. In
German it is
-en ("sagen"), with
-eln or
-ern endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots ("segeln", "ändern"); the use of
zu with infinitives is less frequent than
to in English. They can function as nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: "das Essen" means the "the eating", but also "the food". In
Dutch infinitives also end in
-en ("zeggen" - to say), sometimes used with 'te' similar to English
to, e.g. "Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen" -> "It is not difficult to understand". The few verbs with stems ending in -a have infinitives in -n ("gaan" - to go, "slaan" - to hit). In Scandinavian languages the
n has dropped out and the infinitive suffix has been reduced to
-e or
-a.
Afrikaans has lost the distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs "wees" (to be), which admits the present form "is", and the verb "hê" (to have), whose present form is "het".
Romance infinitives can be used in much the same way as the infinitive is used in English, and they can also sometimes function as masculine nouns. In
Spanish and
Portuguese, infinitives mostly end in
-ar,
-er, or
-ir. A similar phenomenon also exists in
French: infinitives of verbs have the suffixes
-er,
-ir,
-re or
-oir.
Italian follows a similar pattern, with its infinitives ending in
-are,
-ere,
-ire or
-urre.
Formation of the infinitive in Romance languages reflects that of their ancestor,
Latin, in which a significant majority of verbs had an infinitive ending with
-re (with a varying vowel, called the
thematical, preceding it).
Portuguese and its sister language,
Galician are the only
Indo-European languages with a personal infinitive, which helps to make infinitive clauses very common in these languages; for example, the English finite clause
in order that you/she/we have... would be translated to Portuguese as
para teres/ela ter/termos... (the
subject is dropped very often). The Portuguese personal infinitive has no proper tenses, only aspects (imperfect and perfect), but tenses can be expressed using
periphrastic structures. For instance,
even though you sing/have sung/are going to sing could be translated to
apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar.
The infinitive in
Russian usually ends in
-t' (ть) preceded by a
thematic vowel; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the
t to
ch, such as *могть ' мочь "can".
Some other
Slavic languages have the infinitive typically ending in -ć (e. g. in
Polish), -ť (e. g. in
Slovak), -t (formerly -ti in
Czech). However,
Bulgarian and
Macedonian have lost the infinitive. Serbo-Croatian officially retains it but the infinitive is dying out in
Serbia.
Hebrew has
two infinitives, the infinitive absolute and the infinitive construct. The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object:
bikhtōbh hassōph"r "when the scribe wrote",
ahare lekhtō "after his going". When the infinitive construct is preceded by ל (
lə-,
li-,
lā-) "to", it is identical in its meaning to the English
to-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, as in מות ימות
mōth yāmūth (literally "die he will die"; figuratively, "he shall indeed die"). This construction is analogous to English
cognate object constructions, as in
he slept a sleep of peace. This usage is commonplace in the Bible, but in Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-flown literary works.
Note, however, that the
to-infinitive of Hebrew is not the dictionary form; that is the third person singular past tense.
To form the first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without
consonant gradation or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur:# the root is suffixed with
-ta/-tä according to
vowel harmony# consonant elision takes place if applicable, e.g.
juoks+ta '
juosta# assimilation of clusters violating sonority hierarchy if applicable, e.g.
nuol+ta '
nuolla,
sur+ta '
surra# 't' weakens to 'd' after diphthongs, e.g.
juo+ta '
juoda# 't' elides if intervocalic, e.g.
kirjoitta+ta '
kirjoittaaAs such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive.
There are four other infinitives, which create a noun-, or adverb-like word from the verb. For example, the third infinitive is
-ma/-mä, which creates an adjective-like word like "written" from "write":
kirjoita- becomes
kirjoittama.
In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a
that-clause or as a
verbal noun. For example, in Literary Arabic the sentence "I want to write a book" is translated as either
urīdu an aktuba kitāban (literally "I want that I should write a book", with a verb in the
subjunctive mood) or
urīdu kitābata kitābin (literally "I want the writing of a book", with the
masdar or verbal noun), and in Demotic Arabic
biddi aktob kitāb (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive). Similarly, the modern Greek for "I want to write", as opposed to the ancient Greek
θέλω γράφειν with the infinitive, is θέλω να γράψω, which is literally "I want that I should write".
Even in languages that have infinitives, similar constructions are sometimes necessary where English would allow the infinitive. For example, in French the sentence "I want you to come" translates to
Je veux que vous veniez (literally "I want that you come", with
come being in the subjunctive mood). However, "I want to come" is simply
Je veux venir, using the infinitive, just as in English.
*
Auxiliary verb*
Finite verb*
Gerund*
Split infinitive*
Verbal
