Intellectual

An intellectual is a person who uses his or her intellect to work, study, reflect, speculate on, or ask and answer questions with regard to a variety of different ideas.

There are, broadly, three modern definitions at work in discussions about intellectuals. Firstly, 'intellectuals' as those deeply involved in ideas, books, the life of the mind. Secondly, and here largely arising from Marxism, 'intellectuals' as that recognisable occupational class consisting of lecturers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, and suchlike. Thirdly, cultural "intellectuals", being those of notable expertise in culture and the arts, expertise which allows them some cultural authority, and who then use that authority to speak in public on other matters.

'Men of letters'

The expression "man of letters" stood, in many cultures, for what we might take to be the contemporary intellectual. The term implied a distinction between those "who knew their letters" and those who did not. The distinction thus had great weight when literacy was not widespread. "Men of letters" were also termed literati (from the Latin), as a group; this phrase may also refer to the 'citizens' of the Republic of Letters. Literati survives as a term of abuse and used in journalism. Literatus, in the singular, is rarely found in English - the English term is litterateur (from the French littérateur).

Modes of 'intellectual class' in nineteenth-century Europe

Samuel Coleridge speculated early in the nineteenth century on the concept of the clerisy, a class rather than a type of individual, and a secular equivalent of the (Anglican) clergy, with a duty of upholding (national) culture. The idea of the intelligentsia, in comparison, dates from roughly the same time, and is based more concretely on the status class of 'mental' or white-collar workers. Alister McGrath in The Twilight of Atheism (2004) comments (p.53) that 'The emergence of a socially alienated, theologically literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of Germany in the 1830s', and that '... three or four theological graduates in ten might hope to find employment [in a church post]'.

From that time onwards, in Europe and elsewhere, some variant of the idea of an intellectual class has been important (not least to intellectuals, self-styled). The degrees of actual involvement in art, or politics, journalism and education, of nationalist or internationalist or ethnic sentiment, constituting the 'vocation' of an intellectual, have never become fixed. Some intellectuals have been vehemently anti-academic; at times universities and their faculties have been synonymous with intellectualism, but in other periods and some places the centre of gravity of intellectual life has been elsewhere.

One can notice a sharpening of terms, in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Just as the coinage scientist would come to mean a professional, the man of letters would more often be assumed to be a professional writer, perhaps having the breadth of a journalist or essayist, but not necessarily with the engagement of the intellectual.

The Dreyfus affair in France at the end of the nineteenth century is often indicated as the time of full emergence of the intellectual in public life; particularly as concerns the role of Émile Zola in speaking directly on the matter. In fact the term intellectual as we now have it became better known, from that time (and the derogatory implication sometimes attached). The use of the term as a noun in French has been attributed to Georges Clemenceau in 1898.

Societal role of intellectuals

Intellectuals have been viewed as a distinct social class.

Often significantly contributing to the formation and phrasing of ideas, intellectuals are both creators and critics of ideology.

In many definitions, intellectuals are sometimes perceived to remain impervious to propaganda, indoctrination, and self-deception. Due to the cooption of intellectuals by the Soviet Union, the Third Reich and by other regimes and ideologies, the question has been raised how and why intellectuals can be vulnerable to indoctrination in spite of their perceived intelligence. Major reason for this is intellectuels constant criticism towards current ruling system, which often leads to seeking better alternatives from foreign countries models. Nowadays this can be seen by American intellectuels, such as Noam Chomsky, demanding larger public sector as in most of Europe. European intellectuels, such as Johan Norberg, on the other hand tend to critizise bloated welfare systems and demand more libertarian politics.

Intellectualism

Strictly a doctrine about the possibility of deriving knowledge from reason alone, intellectualism can stand for a general approach emphasising the importance of learning and logical thinking. As a philosophical doctrine it is usually termed Rationalism. Criticism of this attitude, sometimes summed up as Left Bank, caricatures intellectualism's faith in the mind and puts it in opposition to emotion, instinct, and primitivist values in general.

Academics and public intellectuals

In some contexts, especially journalistic speech, intellectual refers to academics, generally in the humanities, especially philosophy, who speak about various issues of social or political import. These are so-called public intellectuals — in effect communicators.

The term masks an assumption or several, in particular on academia, for example that intellectual work goes on generally in private, and there is a gap to society that requires bridging. In general practice intellectual as label is more consistently applied to fields related to culture, the arts and social sciences than it is to working disciplines in the natural sciences, applied sciences, mathematics or engineering. Not surprisingly, in any of these fields intellectuals remain as vulnerable to indoctrination, self-deception, and propaganda as the "masses," partly because they experience similar emotions, ranging from fear and anger to hope and love.

The German poet Stefan George is an example of an intellectual who rejected and despised both the academic and too public roles for an artist, and yet was highly influential.

Outside the West

In ancient China literati referred to the government officials who formed the ruling class in China for over two thousand years. They were a status group of educated laymen, not ordained priests. They were not a hereditary group as their position depended on their knowledge of writing and literature. After 200 B.C. the system of selection of candidates was influenced by Confucianism and established its ethic among the literati.

The Hundred Flowers Campaign in China was largely based on the government's wish for a mobilisation of intellectuals; with very sour consequences later. This is perhaps typical of a state's instrumental approach to an intellectual class.

References

* de Huszar, George B., ed., 1960 The Intellectuals: A Controversial Portrait. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Anthology with many contributors).
* Johnson, Paul, Intellectuals. Perennial, 1990, ISBN 0060916575. A highly ideological onslaught discussing Rousseau, Shelley, Marx, Ibsen, Tolstoy, Hemingway, Bertrand Russell, Brecht, Sartre, Edmund Wilson, Victor Gollancz, Lillian Hellman, Cyril Connolly, Norman Mailer, James Baldwin, Kenneth Tynan, Noam Chomsky, and others
* Jennings, Jeremy and Kemp-Welch, Anthony, eds. (1997), Intellectuals in Politics: From the Dreyfus Affair to Salman Rushdie.
* Furedi, Frank, 2004, Where Have All The Intellectuals Gone?, Continuum,
* Posner, Richard A., 2002, Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 067400633X.

External links

* A Special Supplement: The Responsibility of Intellectuals By Noam Chomsky, February 23, 1967
** includes responses by Arthur Dorfman, Raziel Abelson, Fryar Calhoun, E.B. Murray
* U.S. News & World Report on college presidents and public intellectuals
* The medium is English, on Timothy Garton Ash's comments on British intellectuals, at signandsight.com
*Complete-Review.com's "Reactions to Richard Posner's Public Intellectuals"
* Posner's table of 600+ public intellectuals classified by such variables as sex, professional and disciplinary affiliation, political leaning, media affiliation, Web hits, and scholarly citations.
*Foreign Policy and Britain's Prospect magazine top 100 PIs, including a listing by discipline.

Intellectual: Encyclopedia BETA

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