Iranian Revolution
The
Iranian Revolution was the
1979 revolution that transformed
Iran from a
constitutional monarchy, under
Shah (King)
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic,
populist theocratic republic under the rule of
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The revolution has been divided into two stages: the first stage saw an alliance of liberal, leftist, and religious groups oust the Shah; the second stage, often named the
Islamic Revolution, saw the
Ayatollah's rise to power.
The
Shah had been in power since
1941, with a brief interruption in
1953; through the
1960s and
1970s he faced continued opposition, from religious figures as well as from
urban middle classes, many of which supported a
constitutional democracy with fewer powers resting with the Shah. The Shah enforced a strict
regime, imprisoning hundreds of
political activists, and enforcing
censorship laws. At the same time, however, living conditions for the people improved significantly, and many basic human and democratic rights were established (e.g. extending suffrage to women), which were fiercely opposed by
Mullahs who opposed the Shah. The Shah was denounced by many for being a puppet of the
United States.
In
1978 a series of protests, triggered by a libelous story attacking Khomeini in the official press, created an escalating cycle of violence, until, on
December 12, an estimated two million people filled the streets of
Azadi Square (Then Shahyad Square) in
Tehran to protest against the Shah. On
January 16,
1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran on the demands of Prime Minister Dr.
Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself), who sought to calm down the situation. He dissolved
SAVAK and freed all political prisoners, allowed Khomeini to return to Iran after years of exile, asking him to create a
Vatican-like state in
Qom and called upon the opposition to help preserve the constitution, promising free elections. Bakhtiar also ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations.
["demonstrations allowed"ABC Evening News forMonday, Jan 15, 1979] Khomeini rejected Dr. Bakhtiar's demands fiercely and appointed an interim government on his own. Shortly after, with the military announcing their impartiality in the conflict, the overthrow of the monarchy was completed at the hands of the revolutionaries led by Ayatollah Khomeini.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was returned to power in Iran after he had fled the country in
1953. This was achieved by overthrowing the democratically-elected government of Prime Minister
Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh, done through the aid of a joint
CIA and
MI6 covert operation,
codenamed
Operation Ajax. Pahlavi maintained good relations with the
United States, but his government came to be criticized for its
political corruption and the brutal practices of
SAVAK that, in response, witnessed protests in Iran and elicited condemnation from many parts of the
international community.
Strong
opposition arose in many sections of society during the Shah's reign. Of particular importance in this respect were the religious figures that had long grown to be an important voice of opposition in Iran. Since the
19th century Tobacco Protests, the
clergy had been steadily growing in political as well as religious influence. As this opposition grew, the Shah struck hard on dissidents. In 1963, for example, he attacked theology students who tried to stop the opening of a store that sold liquor.
Ayatollah Khomeini was one of the leaders of the religious opposition, who opposed the
Shah's close diplomatic relationship with
Israel,
universal suffrage (voting rights for women), changes in the election laws that allowed
election of
religious minorities to office, and changes in the
civil code which granted women legal equality in marital issues. Following the arrest of Khomeini, and his subsequent exile from Iran in
1964, rioting among the cleric's followers increased. The Shah frequently chose to answer the riots with violence, arresting and killing demonstrators. It is unknown how many lives were claimed in this campaign; the Pahlavi government claimed it to be 86, while Iranian exiles have estimated it in the thousands.
Faced with growing opposition from the religious leaders, who were joined by small business leaders in
1975, the Shah launched a new effort to assert his control over Iranian society. This effort attempted to minimize the role of
Islam in the life of the empire, lauding instead the achievements of pre-Islamic Persian civilization. Thus, in
1976, the beginning of the Iranian solar calendar was changed from the Islamic date to the ascension to throne by
Cyrus the Great. Muslim and Marxist publications were also heavily censored.
The Shah's program of reforms was known as the
White Revolution. It also abolished the feudal system (causing consequences such as breaking up property owned by some Shia clergy - which reduced their income) and it gave
suffrage to women (which was protested by the clergy as being a plot to disrupt the
nuclear family unit).
|
Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi |
The poorest section of the Iranian population tended to be the most religious and the most opposed to perceived foreign imperialism. The poor were largely rural, or inhabited slums outside the large cities, especially the capital
Tehran. Many of them wanted the basic Shi'a Islamic lifestyle to return, in opposition to the Shah's efforts for modernism, which they believed to be imperialism. They viewed the Shah's reforms as self-serving and his promise of providing "progress" to be false, based upon the massive gap between the rich and poor.
In addition in the years following his restoration in
1953, the Shah's position became increasingly perilous. This was due in large measure to his close ties to the West, unsuccessful reforms enacted during the
White Revolution, internal
corruption, and the
despotic nature of his government, especially its
secret police known as
SAVAK.
In the early 1970's, as the price of oil continued its upward climb, many became increasingly angered by the regime's cronyism, internal corruption, and repressive nature. The internal decadence is well illustrated by the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the
Persian Empire. These celebrations consisted of a three-day party held at the site of
Persepolis in October,
1971, to which only foreign dignitaries had been invited to attend. Officially, the celebrations cost $40 million, but unofficial estimates were more in the range of $100-120 million. The party included extravagances, such as over a ton of
caviar, prepared by some of the two hundred chefs flown in from
Paris. Meanwhile, many within Iran had insufficient food and shelter of their own.
In the 1970s, as the rise in global crude oil prices increased the gulf between rich and poor in Iran, the pressure for a change in government policies became more acute. Even pro-Western elements in Iran became disturbed by the increasingly autocratic style of government and increased use of the secret police. Many fled Iran before the Revolution, and others began to organize. At the same time, a broader populist movement found its source of organization in mosques, and in
sermons that denounced the wickedness of the West and Western indulgences. The collision between a young and growing population, and a social structure which offered neither advancement in a modern state, nor the stability of a traditional society, created the conditions which were ripe for revolution.
In
1977, following human rights pressure from U.S. President
Jimmy Carter (who threatened to cut arms shipments), more than 300 political prisoners were released, censorship was relaxed, and the court system reformed. This loosening of restrictions led to more campaigns from the opposition, where writers campaigned for
freedom of thought, and people began to demonstrate. Also, the policy of land reform which the Shah implemented, and had also been caused by pressure from the Carter administration, infuriated the mullahs (who declared a holy war against the Shah), and contributed to the Shah's problems.
This early opposition was led by
Mehdi Bazargan and his Freedom Movement of Iran. It was a liberal, secularist group that was closely linked to
Massadegh's
National Front. This group saw significant support in Iran and abroad in the West.
More revolutionary was
Ali Shariati, a popular and well respected teacher and philosopher who sought to achieve
social justice and democracy through a modern interpretation of Islam. Prior to the rise of Khomeini, Shariati was the most prominent and outspoken leader of the opposition. His murder in
London in
1977 greatly inflamed tensions. As a result, Khomeini eventually became the primary figurehead of the Revolution.
The clergy were divided, some allying with the liberal secularists, and others with the Marxists and Communists. Khomeini, who was in exile in
Iraq, led a small faction that advocated the overthrow of the regime and the creation of a theocratic state. In late 1977, Khomeini's son
Mostafa Khomeini was found dead of unknown reasons; Khomeini himself blamed the Shah's secret police.
The various anti-establishment groups operated from outside Iran, mostly in London,
Paris, Iraq, and
Turkey. Speeches by the leaders of these groups were placed on
audio cassettes to be smuggled into Iran. The speeches could then be listened to by the largely illiterate population.
United States
Facing a
revolution, the
Shah of Iran sought help from the United States. Iran occupied a strategic place in U.S. foreign policy toward the Middle East, acting as an island of stability, and a buffer against Soviet penetration into the region. He was pro-American, but domestically oppressive. The U.S. ambassador to Iran,
William H. Sullivan, recalls that the U.S. national security adviser
Zbigniew Brzezinski "repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the U.S. backed him fully," however these reassurances would not amount to substantive action on the part of the United States. On
November 4,
1978, Brzezinski called the Shah to tell him that the United States would "back him to the hilt." At the same time, certain high-level officials in the State Department decided that the Shah had to go, regardless of who replaced him. Brzezinski, and
Energy Secretary James Schlesinger (former
Secretary of Defense under
Ford), continued to advocate that the U.S. would support the Shah militarily. Even in the final days of the revolution, when the Shah was considered doomed no matter what the outcome of the revolution came to be, Brzezinski still advocated a U.S. invasion to stabilize Iran. President Carter could not decide how to appropriately use force, opposed a U.S. coup, ordered the
Constellation aircraft carrier to the
Indian Ocean, but soon countermanded his order. A deal was worked out with the Iranian generals to shift support to a moderate government, but this plan fell apart when
Khomeini and his followers swept the country, taking power
12 February 1979.
During the period up to 1978, the opposition to the Shah mostly came from the urban middle class, a section of the population that was fairly secular and would support a
constitutional monarchy. It was the Islamic groups that first managed to rally the great mass of the population against the Shah.
In January of 1978 the official press ran a libelous story attacking Khomeini. Angry students and religious leaders protested against the allegations in the city of
Qom. The army was sent in, dispersing the demonstrations and killing several(70+) students.
According to the Shi'ite customs, forty days after a person's death memorial services are held. In mosques across the nation, calls were made to honour the dead students. Thus on
February 18, groups in a number of cities marched to honour the fallen, and to protest against the rule of the Shah. This time, violence erupted in
Tabriz, and over a hundred demonstrators were killed. The cycle repeated itself, and on
March 29, a new round of protests began across the nation. Luxury hotels, theaters showing "unethical movies", and other symbols of the Shah regime were destroyed; again security forces intervened, killing many. On
May 10 the same occurred.
The damage from the demonstrations, along with rampant inflation, further ravaged the Iranian economy. As a result, in the summer of 1978, the government introduced austerity measures that saw many public works projects shut down and wage freezes imposed. These measures created widespread
unemployment and labour unrest, mostly among the poor labourers living in the slums around
Tehran and other major cities. Increasingly, the working class joined the students and the middle class in the protests against the regime.
By September, the nation was rapidly destabilizing, with major protests becoming a regular occurrence. The Shah introduced
martial law, and banned all demonstrations. On Friday,
September 8, a massive protest broke out in Tehran, and in what became known as
Black Friday, the regime used the full force of its weaponry to crush the protests. Tanks, helicopter gun ships, and machine guns killed hundreds.
Black Friday succeeded in alienating much of the rest of the Iranian people, as well as the Shah's allies abroad. A
general strike in October resulted in the collapse of the economy, with most industries being shut down.
The protests of 1978 culminated in December, during the holy month of
Muharram, one of the most important months for Shia Muslims. Hundreds of demonstrators were killed each day, yet each day the protests grew. On
December 12, over two million people filled the streets of Tehran to protest against the Shah.
The army began to disintegrate, as conscripts refused to fire on demonstrators and began to switch sides. Some soldiers turned on superior officers, killing them, and took over military bases.
On
January 16,
1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran on demands of prime minister Dr.
Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself), who sought to calm down the situation. He dissolved SAVAK and freed all political prisoners, allowed
Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran after years of exile, asking him to create a Vatican-like state in
Qom and called upon the opposition to help preserve the constitution, promising free elections.
Ayatollah Khomeini rejected Dr. Bakhtiar's demands fiercely and appointed an interim government on his own. Shortly after, with the military announcing their impartiality in the conflict, the overthrow of monarchy was completed at the hands of the revolutionaries led by the fundamentalist
Ayatollah Khomeini.
There was great jubilation in Iran at the ousting of the Shah, but there was also much disagreement over Iran's future path. While Khomeini was the most popular political figure, there were dozens of revolutionary groups, each with a differing view of the proper direction of Iran's future. There were strong
liberal,
secularist,
Marxist, and
anarchist factions, as well as a wide array of religious groups looking to craft the future of Iran.
The military, economic, and foreign relations of the nation all were in turmoil. The early years saw the development of a government with two centres of power.
Mehdi Bazargan became Prime Minister, and the Freedom Movement worked to establish a liberal secular government. The clerics led by Khomeini formed a separate centre of power, the
Islamic Republican party. The groups tried to cooperate, but tensions grew between the two factions.
It was the theologians who were the first to bring order to the nation, as revolutionary cells became local committees. Becoming known as the
Revolutionary Guards in May 1979, these groups soon were running local governments across Iran, and wielding most of the local power. They also gained control of the judicial tribunals that were passing judgment on the former officials in the Shah's security services and the military.
In June, the Freedom Movement released its draft constitution; it referred to Iran as an Islamic Republic, but gave no official role to the Ulema or Islamic law. The constitution was sent to the newly-elected legislature for review, dominated by allies of Khomeini. The chamber rejected the constitution, agreeing with Khomeini that the new government should be based "100% on Islam."
A new constitution was made that created a powerful post of
Supreme Leader for Khomeini, who would control the military and security services, and could veto candidates running for office. A
president was to be elected every four years, but only those candidates approved indirectly by the Supreme Leader (through a
Council of Guardians) were permitted to run for the office. Khomeini himself became
Head of State for life, as "Leader of the Revolution", and later "Supreme Spiritual Leader". Feeling powerless and disagreeing with the direction the nation was moving, Bazargan resigned as Prime Minister in November.
Western/U.S.-Iranian relations
Anger began to build against the United States for accepting the Shah into the country for cancer treatments. In response youthful supporters of Khomeini took a number of hostages at the American embassy, in what became known as the
Iran hostage crisis.
Failed Nojeh Coup
In July
1980, the U.S. national security adviser
Zbigniew Brzezinski met
Jordan's
King Hussein in
Amman to discuss detailed plans for Saddam Hussein to sponsor a coup in Iran against Khomeini. King Hussein was Saddam's closest confidant in the
Arab world, and served as an intermediary during the planning. The Iraqi invasion of Iran would be launched under the pretext of a call for aid from Iranian loyalist officers plotting their own uprising on July 9, 1980 (codenamed
Nojeh, after Shahrokhi/Nojeh air base in
Hamedan). The Iranian officers were organized by
Shapour Bakhtiar, who had fled to France when Khomeini seized power, but was operating from
Baghdad and
Sulimaniyah at the time of Brzezinski's meeting with Hussein. However, Khomeini learned of the
Nojeh Coup plan from Soviet agents in France,Pakistan, and
Latin America. Shortly after Brzezinski's meeting with Hussein, the
President of Iran,
Abolhassan Bani-Sadr quietly rounded up six hundred officers and executed many of them, putting an effective end to the Nojeh Coup [
1]. Saddam would decide to invade without the Iranian officer's assistance, beginning the
Iran-Iraq war on
22 September 1980.
Opposition by neighboring regimes
The leaders of
Iraq,
Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia and the
Persian Gulf States were also distressed by the Iranian revolution, as a
Shi'a minority exists among their nations (except in Iraq and Bahrain where Shi'a are the majority) and it would stir a civil war. Also Iran called for social justice in the Middle East and an end to corrupt rule in the region and the world. Great support was given to South Africa's Black population, the Developing nations of Africa, Cuba, and the
PLO by Iran's new governments. Iran declared that it was not East or West and opposed both American and Soviet policies to master the world. The emergence of a radical Shia dominated theocracy scared many of its Sunni Arab neighbors. Thus, in
1980, Iraq (politically controlled by Sunnis at this time), with financial support from the rulers of the majority of Arab states, invaded Iran in an attempt to destroy the revolution in its infancy. This began the eight year
Iran-Iraq War that would see a huge cost in lives and resources.
Iran was much stronger and organised than Saddam Hussein had thought. The invasion by Iraq helped rally Iranians behind the new regime, and past differences were largely abandoned in the face of the external threat. In the same year, the new constitution was passed in a
referendum by a large majority. For those who did remain opposed to the new regime, mostly the
Soviet-backed leftist groups, the war became an excuse for harsh treatment that saw the new regime use torture and illegal imprisonments, just as the Shah had.
While Iraq was, in the end, unsuccessful at defeating the revolution, the Islamic revolution failed to spread beyond the borders of Iran. Thus the war partially fulfilled its goals and instead of the revolution spreading to other nations it was only maintained within
Iran. The significant Shi'ite populations of Iraq and the Gulf States did not embrace the new model even though they sympathised with the system.
The one area where Iranian influence was extended was into the
Lebanese Civil War, where
Hezbollah became closely allied with the Iranians, fighting Sunni and Christian factions in Lebanon, and later the Israeli occupation. This support for a group regarded as terrorists by much of the world further ostracized Iran from the world community. Since the end of the civil war, Hezbollah has developed a significant domestic base and is no longer reliant on support from Iran, but relations between the two remain close.
Exile of previous regime
Upon the ascension of the new Shi'ite regime, scores of the Shah's secret police, SAVAK, and thousands of other supporters of the Shah and members of the civil and military elite were executed (most importantly by
Sadegh Khalkhali, the
Sharia ruler). Among those executed - practically without trial - was
Amir Abbas Hoveida, former Prime Minister of Iran. Another former Prime Minister, Dr.
Shapour Bakhtiar, was assassinated in Paris, 1991, after a previous failed attempt on his life. The Shah himself found
political asylum in
Egypt under
Anwar Sadat. The Shah, already terminally ill with
cancer, died in
Cairo on
July 27,
1980.
In the long run, the revolution did result in a lessening of foreign influence, which had tended to be imperialistic. The distribution of wealth also became far more equitable.
However, despite a fair degree of
republicanism in the post-revolutionary political structure (see
politics of Iran for more depth), the violations of
human rights during the theocratic regime have been of a similar level of brutality as during the monarchy.
Torture, the imprisoning of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics is commonplace. The oppression of women has been common since the revolution. So has the oppression of religious minorities, particularly the members of the
Bahá'í Faith, which has been declared heretical. More than 200 Bahá'ís have been executed or killed, hundreds more have been imprisoned, and tens of thousands have been deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. All national Bahá'í administrative structures have been banned by the government, and holy places, shrines and cemeteries have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed. In March 2006, a United Nations report informed the world that Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei has instructed a number of government agencies, including the revolutionary guard and the police force, to 'collect any and all information about members of the Bahá'í Faith'. — [
2]
The revolution also left Iran isolated internationally, outcast from both the
capitalist and
communist worlds, with significant
trade sanctions that continue to this day (by the
United States).
On the other hand, the revolution also had the impact of allowing internal evolution of the political system, rather than evolution imposed by external pressures. For example, in
1997,
reformist president Mohammad Khatami was elected, and the relatively high level (for the region) of
Internet penetration (
as of 2005, Iran had about 7.5 million internet users — [
3], see also
Iranian blogs) makes it difficult to stop this continued internal evolution of political thought and organisation.
*
People's Mujahedin of Iran*
Wilayat al-Faqih*
Persian Constitutional Revolution*
White Revolution*
1979 energy crisis*
History of Iran* (Chapter 6: Iran: Revolutionary Fundamentalism in Power.)
*
Kapuscinski, Ryszard.
Shah of Shahs. Translated from Polish by William R. Brand and Katarzyna Mroczkowska-Brand. New York: Vintage International, 1992.
*Kurzman, Charles.
The Unthinkable Revolution. Cambridge, MA & London: Harvard University Press, 2004.
*
Habib Ladjevardi (editor),
Memoirs of Shapour Bakhtiar, Harvard University Press, 1996.
*Legum, Colin, et al., eds.
Middle East Contemporary Survey: Volume III, 1978-79. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980.
*
Abbas Milani,
The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Iranian Revolution, Mage Publishers, 2000, ISBN 0934211612.
*Munson, Henry, Jr.
Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
*Nafisi, Azar. "Reading Lolita in Tehran." New York: Random House, 2003.
*
Ali Reza Nobari, ed.
Iran Erupts: Independence: News and Analysis of the Iranian National Movement. Stanford: Iran-America Documentation Group, 1978.
*
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi,
Response to History, Stein & Day Pub, 1980, ISBN 0812827554.
*Rahnema, Saeed & Sohrab Behdad, eds.
Iran After the Revolution: Crisis of an Islamic State. London:
I.B. Tauris, 1995.
*Sick, Gary.
All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran. New York: Penguin Books, 1986.
*
William Shawcross,
The Shah's last ride: The death of an ally, Touchstone, 1989, ISBN 067168745X.
*Smith, Frank E.
The Iranian Revolution. 1998.
*Society for Iranian Studies,
Iranian Revolution in Perspective. Special volume of Iranian Studies, 1980. [Volume 13, nos. 1-4].
*
Time magazine, Jan 7, 1980.
Man of the Year. [Ayatollah Khomeini]
*U.S. Department of State,
American Foreign Policy Basic Documents, 1977-1980. Washington, DC: GPO, 1983. [JX 1417 A56 1977-80 REF - 67 pages on Iran]
*Yapp, M.E.
The Near East Since the First World War: A History to 1995. London: Longman, 1996. [Chapter 13: Iran, 1960-1989]
*
The Story of the Revolution - a detailed web resource from the
BBC World Service Persian Branch, devoted to the Iranian Revolution (audio recordings in Persian, transcripts in English)
*
Iranian underground Art movement *
The Reunion - The Shah of Iran's Court -
BBC Radio 4 presents an audio program featuring reminiscences of the Iranian Revolution by key members of the pre-Revolutionary elite
*
BBC World's "Iranian revolution in pictures"*
Jews and the Iranian Revolution*http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588431/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran.html
*
Iranian Culture - Ancient Persia and modern Iran, culture, music, poetry, arts, tours.
*
Brzezinski's role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution,
Payvand News, March 10, 2006.
*
What Happens When Islamists Take Power? The Case of Iran# Hiro, Dilip. Iran Under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1985. p. 57.
