Khazars
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The site of the Khazar fortress at Sarkel. Aerial photo from excavations conducted by Mikhail Artamonov in the 1930s. |
The
Khazars (
Heb. sing. "Kuzari" כוזרי
plur. "Kuzarim" כוזרים;
Arab. خزر;
Turk. sing. "Hazar"
plur. Hazarlar;
Greek Χαζάροι;
Russ. Хазары;
Tat. sing Xäzär
plur. Xäzärlär;
Persian خزر;
Latin "Gazari" or "Cosri") were a semi-
nomadic Turkic people from
Central Asia, many of whom converted to
Judaism. The name 'Khazar' seems to be tied to a
Turkic verb form meaning "wandering" ('gezer' in modern
Turkish). In the
7th century CE they founded an independent
Khaganate in the Northern
Caucasus along the
Caspian Sea, where over time Judaism became the state religion. At their height, they and their tributaries controlled much of what is today southern
Russia, western
Kazakhstan, eastern
Ukraine, large portions of the Caucasus (including
Dagestan,
Azerbaijan, and
Georgia), and the
Crimea.
The Khazars were important allies of the
Byzantine Empire against the
Sassanid empire, and were a major regional power at their height. They fought a series of successful wars against the
Arab Caliphates, probably preventing an Arab invasion of
Eastern Europe. By the end of the
tenth century, their power was broken by the
Kievan Rus, and the Khazars largely disappeared from history. The theoretical Khazar contribution to the bloodline of modern
Ashkenazi Jews proposed by some historians is politically sensitive. Current genetic studies show that Jewish
Y-Chromosome DNA seems to have originated in Middle Eastern populations, whereas studies which take into account
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) show no relation to middle eastern ethnic groups.
[In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots by Nicholas Wade (New York Times) May 14, 2002] So although Khazars might have been absorbed into the Jewish population it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Ashkenazim.
[The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East by Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim (The American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 69, number 5. pp. 1095-1112) (brief)]The origins of the Khazars are unclear. Following their conversion to Judaism, the Khazars themselves traced their origins to
Kozar, a son of
Togarmeh. Togarmeh is mentioned in the
Hebrew scriptures as a grandson of
Japheth. It is unlikely, however, that he was regarded as an ancestor before the introduction of Biblical traditions to Khazaria.
Some historians have looked for possible connections between the Khazars and the
lost tribes of Israel, but modern scholars generally consider them to be Turks who migrated from the East. Scholars in the former
USSR considered the Khazars to be an
indigenous people of the
North Caucasus. Some scholars, such as
D.M. Dunlop, considered the Khazars to be connected with a
Tiele confederation tribe called
He'san in
Chinese sources from the
7th-century (Suishu, 84). However, the
Khazar language appears to have been an tongue, similar to that spoken by the early
Bulgars. Therefore, a Hunnish origin has also been postulated. Since the Turkic peoples were never ethnically homogenous, these ideas need not be deemed mutually exclusive. It is likely that the Khazar nation was made up of tribes from various ethnic backgrounds, as steppe nations traditionally absorbed those they conquered.
Armenian chronicles contain references to the Khazars as early as the late
second century. These are generally regarded as
anachronisms, and most scholars believe that they actually refer to
Sarmatians or
Scythians.
Priscus relates that one of the nations in the
Hunnish confederacy was called
Akatziroi. Their king was named
Karadach or Karidachus. Some, going on the similarity between Akatziroi and "Ak-Khazar" (see below), have speculated that the Akatziroi were early proto-Khazars.
Dmitri Vasil'ev of
Astrakhan State University recently hypothesized that the Khazars moved in to the Pontic steppe region only in the late
500s, and originally lived in
Transoxiana. According to Vasil'ev, Khazar populations remained behind in Transoxiana under
Pecheneg and
Oghuz suzerainty, possibly remaining in contact with the main body of their people.
The Khazars' tribal structure is not well understood. They appear, like many Turkic nations, to have been divided between Ak-Khazars ("White Khazars") and Kara-Khazars ("Black Khazars"). Writers such as
Graetz mistakenly believed that these were racial designations; in fact, such distinctions have nothing to do with physical appearance or racial identification. The White-Black distinction is a common social division in Eurasian nomadic tribes, with the "White" group representing the nobility, warrior elite and ruling classes, and the "Black" group making up the commoners, tradesmen, etc.
Peter Golden speculated that the Khazar ethnos was a conglomerate of and common Turkic nations, including the
Sabirs and
North Caucasian Huns as well as elements of the
Gokturks.
Formation of the Khazar state
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Map of the Western (purple) and Eastern (blue) Gokturk khaganates at their height, c. 600 CE. Lighter areas show direct rule; darker areas show spheres of influence. |
Early Khazar history is intimately tied with that of the
Gokturk empire, founded when the
Ashina clan overthrew the
Juan Juan in
552 CE. With the collapse of the Gokturk empire / tribal confederation due to internal conflict in the
seventh century, the western half of the Turk empire itself split into two confederations, the
Bulgars, led by the
Dulo clan, and the Khazars, led by the
Ashina clan, the traditional rulers of the Gok Turk empire. By
670, the Khazars had broken the Bulgar confederation, leaving the three Bulgar remnants on the
Volga, the
Black Sea and the
Danube.
The first significant appearance of the Khazars in history is their aid to the campaign of the
Byzantine emperor
Heraclius against the
Sassanid Persians. The Khazar ruler Ziebel (sometimes identified as
Tong Yabghu Khagan of the West Turks) aided the Byzantines in overrunning
Georgia. A marriage was even contemplated between Ziebel's son and Heraclius' daughter, but never took place.
During the
7th and
8th centuries the Khazar fought a series of wars against the
Umayyad Caliphate, which was attempting simultaneously to expand its influence into
Transoxiana and the
Caucasus. The first war was fought in the early
650 and ended with the defeat of an Arab force led by
Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah outside the Khazar town of
Balanjar, after a battle in which both sides used
siege engines on the others' troops.
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The Pontic steppe, c. 650, showing the early territory of the Khazars and their neighbors. |
A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan,
Irbis, from this period, and describe him as a scion of the Gokturk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is the issue of whether he can be identified with one of the many
Gokturk rulers of the same name.
Several further conflicts erupted in the decades that followed, with Arab attacks and Khazar raids into
Kurdistan and
Iran. There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Gok Turks in Transoxiana.
Khazars and Byzantium
Khazar overlordship over most of the
Crimea dates back to the late
600s. In the mid
700s the rebellious
Crimean Goths were put down and their city,
Doros (modern Mangup) occupied. A Khazar tudun was resident at
Cherson in the
690s, despite the fact that this town was nominally subject to the
Byzantine Empire.
They are also known to have been allied with the
Byzantine Empire during at least part of the 700s. In
704/
705 Justinian II, exiled in
Cherson, escaped into Khazar territory and married the sister of the Khagan,
Busir. With the aid of his wife, he escaped from Busir, who was intriguing against him with the usurper
Tiberius III, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. He fled to
Bulgaria, whose Khan
Tervel helped him regain the throne. The Khazars later provided aid to the rebel general
Bardanes, who seized the throne in
711 as Emperor
Philippicus.
The Byzantine emperor
Leo III married his son Constantine (later
Constantine V Kopronymous) to the Khazar princess
Tzitzak (daughter of the Khagan
Bihar) as part of the alliance between the two empires. Tzitzak, who was baptized as
Irene, became famous for her wedding gown, which started a fashion craze in Constantinople for a type of robe (for men) called
tzitzakion. Their son Leo (
Leo IV) would be better known as "Leo the Khazar".
Second Khazar-Arab war
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Expansion of the Caliphate to 750 CE.
From The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923
Courtesy of The General Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin |
Hostilities broke out again with the Caliphate in the
710s, with raids back and forth across the Caucasus but few decisive battles. The Khazars, led by a prince named
Barjik, invaded northwestern
Iran and defeated the
Umayyad forces at
Ardebil in
730, killing the Arab warlord
al-Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town. They were defeated the next year at
Mosul, where Barjik directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head, and Barjik was killed. Arab armies led first by the Arab prince
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Marwan ibn Muhammad (later Caliph
Marwan II) poured across the Caucasus and eventually (in
737) defeated a Khazar army led by
Hazer Tarkhan, briefly occupying
Atil itself and possibly forcing the Khagan to convert to Islam. The instability of the Umayyad regime made a permanent occupation impossible; the Arab armies withdrew and Khazar independence was re-asserted. It has been speculated that the adoption of
Judaism (which in this theory would have taken place around
740) was part of this re-assertion of
independence.
It is worth noting that around
739, Arab sources give the name of the ruler of the Khazars as
Parsbit or Barsbek, a woman who appears to have directed military operations against them. This suggests that women could have very high positions within the Khazar state, possibly even as a stand-in for the khagan.
Although they stopped the
Arab expansion into
Eastern Europe for some time after these wars, the Khazars were forced to withdraw behind the Caucasus. In the ensuing decades they extended their territories from the
Caspian Sea in the east (Many cultures still call the Caspian Sea "Khazar Sea"; e.g. "Hazar Denizi" in Turkish, "Bahr ul-Khazar" in Arabic, "Darya-ye Khazar" in Persian) to the steppe region north of
Black Sea in the west, as far west at least as the
Dnieper River.
In
758, the
Abbasid Caliph Abdullah
al-Mansur ordered
Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and military governor of
Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride and make peace. Yazid took home a daughter of Khagan
Baghatur, the Khazar leader. Unfortunately, the girl died inexplicably, possibly in childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that some Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. A Khazar general named
Ras Tarkhan invaded what is now northwestern Iran, plundering and raiding for several months. Thereafter relations between the Khazars and the
Abbasid Caliphate (whose foreign policies were generally less expansionist than its Umayyad predecessor) became increasingly cordial.
Turkic shamanism
Originally, the Khazars practiced traditional Turkic
shamanism, focused on the sky
god Tengri, but were heavily influenced by
Confucian ideas imported from
China, notably that of the
Mandate of Heaven. The
Ashina clan were considered to be the chosen of Tengri and the kaghan was the incarnation of the favor the sky-god bestowed on the Turks. A kaghan who failed had clearly lost the god's favor and was typically
ritually executed. Historians have sometimes wondered, only half in jest, if the Khazar tendency to occasionally execute their rulers on religious grounds led those rulers to seek out other religions.
The Khazars worshipped a number of deities subordinate to Tengri, including the fertility
goddess Umay,
Kuara, a thunder god, and
Erlik, the god of death.
Conversion to Judaism and relations with world Jewry
Jewish communities had existed in the Greek cities of the
Black Sea coast since late classical times.
Cherson,
Sudak,
Kerch and other Crimean cities possessed Jewish communities, as did
Gorgippa, and
Samkarsh /
Tmutarakan was said to have had a Jewish majority as early as the
670s. The original Jewish settlers were joined by waves of
immigration fleeing
persecution in the
Byzantine Empire,
Sassanid Persia (particularly during the
Mazdak revolts),
[Levy ____.] and later within the
Islamic world. Jewish merchants such as the
Radhanites regularly traded in Khazar territory, and may have wielded significant economic and political influence. Though their origins and history are somewhat unclear, the
Mountain Jews also lived in or near Khazar territory and may have been allied with or subject to Khazar overlordship; it is conceivable that they too played a role in the conversion.
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Map of the world, c. 820 CE, showing the Khazar Empire in larger geopolitical context. |
At some point in the last decades of the
8th century or the early
9th century, the Khazar
royalty and
nobility converted to
Judaism, and part of the general population followed. The extent of the conversion is debated.
Ibn al-Faqih reported in the
10th century that "all the Khazars are Jews." Notwithstanding this statement, most scholars believed that only the upper classes converted to Judaism; there is some support for this in contemporary Muslim texts. However, recent archeological excavations have uncovered widespread shifts in burial practices. Around the mid 800s burials in Khazaria began to take on a decidedly Jewish flavor. Grave goods disappeared almost altogether. Judging by interment evidence, by
950 Judaism had become widespread among all classes of Khazar society.
The apostle of the
Slavs,
Cyril, is said to have attempted their conversion without enduring results.
Essays in the
Kuzari, written by
Yehuda Halevi, details a moral liturgical reason for the conversion which some consider a moral tale. Some researchers have suggested part of the reason for this mass conversion was political expediency to maintain a degree of
neutrality: the Khazar empire was between growing populations,
Muslims to the east and
Christians to the west. Both religions recognized Judaism as a forebear and worthy of some respect. The exact date of the conversion is hotly contested. It may have occurred as early as 740 or as late as the mid
800s. Recently-discovered
numismatic evidence suggests that Judaism was the established state religion by c.
830, and though
St. Cyril (who visited Khazaria in
861) did not identify the Khazars as Jews, the khagan of that period, Zachariah, had a biblical Hebrew name. Some medieval sources give the name of the
rabbi who oversaw the conversion of the Khazars as
Isaac Sangari or
Yitzhak ha-Sangari.
The first Jewish Khazar king was named
Bulan which means "
elk", though some sources give him the Hebrew name
Sabriel. A later king,
Obadiah, strengthened Judaism, inviting
rabbis into the kingdom and building
synagogues. Jewish figures such as
Saadia Gaon made positive references to the Khazars, and they are excoriated in contemporary
Karaite writings as "bastards"; it is therefore unlikely that they adopted Karaism as some (such as
Avraham Firkovich) have proposed.
The Khazars enjoyed close relations with the Jews of the
Levant and
Persia. The Persian Jews, for example, hoped that the Khazars might succeed in conquering the Caliphate (
Harkavy, in Kohut Memorial Volume, p. 244). The high esteem in which the Khazars were held among the Jews of the Orient may be seen in the application to them, in an
Arabic commentary on
Isaiah ascribed by some to
Saadia Gaon, and by others to
Benjamin Nahawandi, of
Isaiah 48:14: "The Lord hath loved him." "This," says the commentary, "refers to the Khazars, who will go and destroy
Babel" (i.e.,
Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs (Harkavy in "Ha-Maggid." 1877, p. 357).
Likewise, the Khazar rulers viewed themselves as the protectors of international
Jewry, and corresponded with foreign Jewish leaders (the
letters exchanged between the Khazar ruler
Joseph and the Spanish rabbi
Hasdai ibn Shaprut have been preserved). They were known to retaliate against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria for persecution of Jews abroad.
Ibn Fadlan relates that around
920 the Khazar ruler received information that Muslims had destroyed a synagogue in the land of
Babung, in
Iran; he gave orders that the
minaret of the
mosque in his capital should be broken off, and the
muezzin executed. He further declared that he would have destroyed all the mosques in the country had he not been afraid that the Muslims would in turn destroy all the synagogues in their lands.
Other religions
Besides
Judaism, other religions probably practiced in areas ruled by the Khazars include
Greek Orthodox,
Nestorian, and
Monophysite Christianity,
Zoroastrianism as well as
Norse,
Finnic, and
Slavic cults. Religious toleration was maintained for the kingdom's three hundred plus years. The "apostle of the Slavs",
Saint Cyril, is said to have attempted their conversion without enduring results. Many Khazars reportedly were converts to Christianity and Islam. (See "Judiciary", below.)
Khazar Kingship
Main Articles: Khagan; Khagan Bek; for names of Khazar rulers see List of Khazar rulers.Khazar kingship was divided between the
khagan and the
Bek or
Khagan Bek. Contemporary Arab historians related that the Khagan was purely a spiritual ruler or figurehead with limited powers, while the Bek was responsible for administration and military affairs.
Both the Khagan and the Khagan Bek lived in Itil. The Khagan's palace, according to Arab sources, was on an island in the Volga River. He was reported to have 25 wives, each the daughter of a client ruler; this may, however, have been an exaggeration.
In the
Khazar Correspondence,
King Joseph identifies himself as the ruler of the Khazars and makes no reference to a colleague. It has been disputed whether Joseph was a Khagan or a Bek; his description of his military campaigns make the latter probable. A third option is that by the time of the Correspondence (c. 950-
960) the Khazars had merged the two positions into a single ruler, or that the Beks had somehow supplanted the Khagans or vice versa.
Army
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Khazar warrior with captive, based on reconstruction by Norman Finkelshteyn of image from an 8th-century ewer found in Romania (original at [1]) |
Khazar armies were led by the
Khagan Bek and commanded by subordinate
officers known as
tarkhans. A famous tarkhan referred to in
Arab sources as
Ras or As Tarkhan led an invasion of
Armenia in
758. The army included regiments of
Muslim auxiliaries known as
Arsiyah, of
Khwarezmian or
Alan extraction, who were quite influential. These regiments were exempt from campaigning against their fellow Muslims. Early
Russian sources sometimes referred to the city of
Khazaran (across the
Volga River from
Atil) as
Khvalisy and the Khazar (
Caspian) sea as
Khvaliskoye. According to some scholars such as
Omeljan Pritsak, these terms were
East Slavic versions of "Khwarezmian" and referred to these
mercenaries.
In addition to the Bek's standing army, the Khazars could call upon tribal levies in times of danger and were often joined by
auxiliaries from subject nations.
Other officials
Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as
tuduns. In some cases (such as the Byzantine settlements in southern
Crimea), a tudun would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's
sphere of influence.
Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by
ibn Fadlan as
Jawyshyghr and
Kundur, but their responsibilities are unknown.
Judiciary
Muslim sources report that the Khazar supreme court consisted of two Jews, two
Christians, two
Muslims, and a "heathen" (whether this is a Turkic shaman or a priest of Slavic or Norse religion is unclear), and a citizen had the right to be judged according to the laws of his religion. Some have argued that this configuration is unlikely, as a Beit Din, or rabbinical court, requires three members. It is therefore possible that as practitioners of the state religion, the Jews had three judges on the Supreme Court rather than two, and that the Muslim sources were attempting to downplay their influence. A
Muslim or
Christian court can function with only one or two judges.
Trade
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Map of Eurasia showing the trade network of the Radhanites, c. 870 CE, as reported in the account of ibn Khordadbeh in the Book of Roads and Kingdoms. |
The Khazars occupied a prime
trade nexus. Goods from western Europe travelled east to Central Asia and China and vice versa, and the Muslim world could only interact with northern Europe via Khazar intermediaries. The
Radanites, a guild of medieval Jewish merchants, had a trade route that ran through Khazaria, and may have been instrumental in the Khazars' conversion to Judaism.
No Khazar paid taxes to the central government. Revenue came from a 10% levy on goods transiting through the region, and from tribute paid by subject nations. The Khazars exported
honey,
furs,
wool,
millet and other
cereals,
fish, and
slaves. D.M. Dunlop and Artamanov asserted that the Khazars produced no material goods themselves, living solely off of trade. This theory has been refuted by discoveries over the last half-century, which include pottery and glass factories.
Khazar coinage
See also: NumismaticsThe Khazars are known to have minted silver coins, called
Yarmaqs. Many of these were copies of Arab
dirhems. Coins of the Caliphate were in widespread use due to their reliable silver content. Merchants from as far away as
China,
Great Britain, and
Scandinavia accepted them regardless of their inability to read the Arab writing. Thus issuing imitation dirhems was a way to ensure acceptance of Khazar coinage in foreign lands.
Some surviving examples bear the legend "Ard al-Khazar" (Arabic for "land of the Khazars"). In 1999 a hoard of
silver coins was discovered on the property of the Spillings farm in the
Swedish island of
Gotland. Among the coins were several dated 837/8 CE and bearing the legend, in
Arabic script, "
Moses is the Prophet of God" (a modification of the Muslim coin inscription "
Muhammad is the Prophet of God"). In "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins", Roman Kovavlev postulated that these dirhems were a special
commemorative issue celebrating the adoption of Judaism by the Khazar ruler Bulan.
The Khazar Khaganate was, at its height, an immensely powerful state. The Khazar heartland was on the lower Volga and the Caspian coast as far south as
Derbent. In addition, from the late 600s the Khazars controlled most of the
Crimea and the northeast littoral of the
Black Sea. By 800 Khazar holdings included most of the Pontic steppe as far west as the Dneiper and as far east as the Aral Sea (some Turkic history atlases show the Khazar sphere of influence extending well east of the Aral). During the Khazar-Arab war of the early 700s, some Khazars evacuated to the
Ural foothills, and some settlements may have remained.
Khazar towns
Khazar towns included:
*Along the Caspian coast and Volga delta::
Atil;
Khazaran;
Samandar*In the
Caucasus::
Balanjar;
Kazarki;
Sambalut;
Samiran*In
Crimea and
Taman region::
Kerch (also called Bospor);
Theodosia;
Gusliyev (modern
Eupatoria);
Samkarsh (also called
Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha);
Sudak (also called Sugdaia)
*In the
Don valley::
Sarkel*Numerous Khazar settlements have been discovered in the
Mayaki-Saltovo region. On the
Dnieper, the Khazars founded a settlement called Sambat, which was part of what would become the city of
Kiev.
Chernihiv is also thought to have started as a Khazar settlement.
Tributary and subject nations
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Map of the Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 CE. Area of direct Khazar control shown in dark blue, sphere of influence in purple. Other boundaries shown in dark red. |
Numerous nations were tributaries of the Khazars. A client-king subject to Khazar overlordship was called an "
Elteber". At various times, Khazar vassals included:
In the Pontic steppes, Crimea and Turkestan:The
Pechenegs ; the
Oghuz; the
Crimean Goths; the Crimean
Huns (
Onogurs?); the early
MagyarsIn the Caucasus:
Georgia;
Abkhazia; various
Armenian principalities;
Arran; the
North Caucasian Huns;
Lazica; the
Caucasian Avars; the
Kassogs; and the
Lezgins.
On the Upper Don and Dneiper:Various
East Slavic tribes such as the
Derevlians and the
Vyatichs; various early
Rus polities
On the Volga:
Volga Bulgaria; the
Burtas; various
Finno-Ugrian forest tribes such as the
Mordvins and
Ob-Ugrians; the
Bashkir; the
BarsilsRise of Rus
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A much reduced Khazaria and surrounding states, c. 950 CE |
Originally the Khazars were probably allied with various
Norse factions who controlled the region around
Novgorod and regularly travelled through Khazar-held territory to attack territories around the Black and Caspian Seas. By
913, however, the Khazars were engaged in open hostilities with
Norse marauders. The Khazar fortress of
Sarkel, constructed with
Byzantine aid around
830, may have been constructed as a defense against
Rus incursions, as well as attacks by
nomadic people such as the
Pechenegs.
In the
10th century the empire began to decline due to the attacks of both
Vikings from
Kievan Rus and various Turkic tribes. It enjoyed a brief revival under the strong rulers Aaron and Joseph, who subdued rebellious client states such as the
Alans and led victorious wars against Rus invaders.
Kabar rebellion and the departure of the Magyars
At some point in the ninth century (as reported by
Constantine Porphyrogenitus) a group of three Khazar clans called the
Kabars revolted against the Khazar government.
Omeljan Pritsak and others have speculated that the revolt had something to do with a rejection of rabbinic Judaism; this is unlikely as it is believed that both the Kabars and mainstream Khazars had pagan, Jewish (both rabbinic and
Karaite), Christian, and Muslim members. Pritsak maintained that the Kabars were led by the Khagan Khan-Tuvan Dyggvi in a war against the Bek. In any event Pritsak cited no primary source for his propositions in this matter. The Kabars were defeated and joined a confederacy led by the Magyars. It has been speculated that "Hungarian" derives from the Turkic word "Onogur", or "Ten Arrows", referring to seven
Finno-Ugric tribes and the three tribes of the Kabars.
In the closing years of the ninth century the Khazars and Oghuz allied to attack the Pechenegs, who had been attacking both nations. The Pechenegs were driven westward, where they forced out the Magyars (
Hungarians) who had previously inhabited the Don-Dnieper basin in vassalage to Khazaria. Under the leadership of the chieftain
Lebedias and later
Arpad, the Hungarians moved west into modern-day
Hungary. The departure of the Hungarians led to an unstable power vacuum and the loss of Khazar control over the steppes north of the Black Sea.
Diplomatic isolation and military threats
|
Svyatoslav (seated in the boat), the destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.
From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852"1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with Emperor John, as described by Leo the Deacon. |
The alliance with the Byzantines began to collapse in the early
900s, possibly as a result of the conversion to Judaism. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the
940s Constantine VII Porphyrogentius was speculating in
De Administrando Imperio about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus, with varying degrees of success.
From the beginning of the tenth century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies, often at Byzantine instigation. According to the
Schechter Text, the Khazar ruler
Benjamin ben Menahem fought a war against a coalition of "'SY, TWRQY, 'BM, and PYYNYL," who were instigated and aided by "MQDWN". MQDWN or
Macedon refers to the Byzantine Empire in many medieval Jewish writings; the other entities named have been tenuously identified by scholars including Omeljan Pritsak with the
Burtas,
Oghuz Turks,
Volga Bulgars and
Pechenegs, respectively. Though Benjamin was victorious, his son
Aaron II had to face another Byzantine-inspired invasion, this time led by the
Alans. Aaron defeated the Alans with Oghuz help, yet within a few years the Oghuz and Khazars were enemies.
Ibn Fadlan reported Oghuz hostility to the Khazars during his journey c. 921. Some sources, discussed by Tamara Rice, claim that
Seljuk, the eponymous progenitor of the
Seljuk Turks, began his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid tenth century, rising to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for
Khwarazm.
The Rus warlords
Oleg of Novgorod and
Sviatoslav I of Kiev launched several wars against the Khazar khaganate, often with Byzantine connivance. The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW (Oleg) around
941 (in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general
Pesakh; this calls into question the timeline of the
Primary Chronicle and other related works.
Sviatoslav finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the
960s. The Khazar fortresses of
Sarkel and
Tamatarkha fell to the Rus in
965, with the capital city of
Atil following circa
967 or
969.
Khazar communities existed outside of those areas under Khazar overlordship. Many Khazar
mercenaries served in the armies of the
Caliphate and other
Islamic states. Documents from medieval
Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of
Pera. Christian Khazars also lived in Constantinople, and some served in its armies. The
Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople was once angrily referred to by the Emperor as "Khazar-face", though whether this refers to his actual lineage or is a generic insult is unclear.
Abraham ibn Daud reported Khazar
rabbinical students, or rabbinical students who were the descendents of Khazars, in 12th century
Spain. Jews from Kiev and elsewhere in Russia, who may or may not have been Khazars, were reported in France, Germany and England.The
Kabars who settled in
Hungary in the late ninth and early tenth centuries may have included Jews among their number. Many Khazar Jews probably fled foreign conquest into Hungary and elsewhere in
Eastern Europe. There they likely merged with local Jews and ensuing waves of Jewish immigration from Germany and Western Europe. They most likely did not constitute the dominant group within Eastern European Jewry, as
Arthur Koestler maintained (see below).
Polish legends speak of Jews being present in
Poland before the establishment of the Polish monarchy. Polish coins from the 12th and 13th centuries sometimes bore Slavic inscriptions written in the
Hebrew alphabet [
2] [
3] though connecting these coins to Khazar influence is purely a matter of speculation.
|
The Pontic steppes, c.1015. The areas in pale blue are those possibly still under Khazar control. |
There is debate as to the temporal and geographic extent of Khazar polities following
Sviatoslav's sack of Atil in 967/9, or even whether any such states existed. The Khazars may have retained control over some areas in the Caucasus for another two centuries, but sparse historical records make this difficult to confirm.
The evidence of later Khazar polities includes the fact that Sviatoslav did not occupy the Volga basin after he destroyed Atil, and departed relatively quickly to embark on his campaign in
Bulgaria. The permanent conquest of the Volga basin seems to have been left to later waves of steppe peoples like the
Kipchaks.
Jewish sources
A letter in Hebrew dated
AM 4746 (
985"
986) refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in
Taman. The letter said that this David was visited by envoys from Kievan Rus to ask about religious matters " this could be connected to the Vladimir conversion which took place during the same time period. Taman was a principality of Kievan Rus around
988, so this
successor state (if that is what it was) may have been conquered altogether. The authenticity of this letter, the Mandgelis Document, has however been questioned by such scholars as
D. M. Dunlop.
Abraham ibn Daud, a twelfth-century Spanish rabbi, reported meeting Khazar rabbinical students in
Toledo, and that they informed him that the "remnant of them is of the rabbinic faith." This reference indicates that some Khazars maintained ethnic, if not political, autonomy at least two centuries after the sack of Atil.
Petachiah of Ratisbon, a thirteenth-century rabbi and traveler, reported traveling through "Khazaria", though he gave few details of its inhabitants except to say that they lived amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.
He further related:
Whilst at Baghdad [I] saw ambassadors from the kings of Meshech, for Magog (medieval Christian writers said that the Khazars lived in the land of
Gog and Magog)
is about ten days' journey from thence. The land extends as far as the Mountains of Darkness (a term often used to describe the
Caucasus).
Beyond the Mountains of Darkness are the sons of Jonadab, son of Rechab (an official in the court of King
Josiah of
Judah).
To the seven kings of Meshech an angel appeared in a dream, bidding them to give up the laws and statutes, and to embrace the laws of Moses, son of Amram. If not, he threatened to lay waste their country. However, they delayed until the angel commenced to lay waste their country, when the kings of Meshech and all the inhabitants of their countries became proselytes, and they sent to the head of the academy (i.e., the
Gaon of Sura or Pumbedita)
a request to send them some disciples of the wise. Every disciple that is poor goes there to teach them the law and Babylonian Talmud. From the land of Egypt the disciples go there to study. He saw the ambassadors visit the grave of [the prophet] Ezekiel…"The account of the conversion of the "seven kings of Meshech" is extremely similar to the accounts of the Khazar conversion given in the
Kuzari, and in
King Joseph's Reply. It is possible that Meshech refers to the Khazars, or to some Judaized polity influenced by them. Arguments against this possibility include the reference to "seven kings" (though this, in turn, could refer to seven successor tribes or state micropolities).
Muslim sources
Ibn Hawqal and
al-Muqaddasi refer to Atil after 969, indicating that it may have been rebuilt. Al-Biruni (mid-
1000s) reported that Atil was in ruins, and did not mention the later city of
Saqsin which was built nearby, so it is possible that this new Atil was only destroyed in the middle of the eleventh century. Even assuming al-Biruni's report was not an anachronism, there is no evidence that this "new" Atil was populated by Khazars rather than by
Pechenegs or a different tribe.
Ibn al-Athir, who wrote around
1200, described "the raid of Fadhlun the Kurd against the Khazars". Fadhlun the Kurd has been identified as al-Fadhl ibn Muhammad al-Shaddadi, who ruled
Arran and other parts of
Azerbaijan in the 1030s. According to the account he attacked the Khazars but had to flee when they ambushed his army and killed 10,000 of his men. Two of the great early 20th century scholars on Eurasian nomads,
Marquart and
Barthold, disagreed about this account. Marquart believed that this incident refers to some Khazar remnant that had reverted to paganism and nomadic life. Barthold, (and more recently, Kevin Brook), took a much more skeptical approach and said that ibn al-Athir must have been referring to Georgians or Abkhazians. There is no evidence to decide the issue one way or the other.
Kievan Rus sources
In 986 Khazar Jews were present at
Vladimir's
disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievian Rus. Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kiev or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear. The whole incident is regarded by a few radical scholars as a fabrication, but the reference to Khazar Jews (after the destruction of the Khaganate) is still relevant.
Heinrich Graetz alleged that these were Jewish missionaries from the Crimea, but provided no reference to primary sources for his allegation.
In
1023 the
Primary Chronicle reports that
Mstislav (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included "Khazars and Kasogs". Kasogs were an early
Circassian people. "Khazars" in this reference is considered by most to be intended in the generic sense, but some have questioned why the reference reads "Khazars and Kasogs", when "Khazars" as a generic would have been sufficient. Even if the reference is to Khazars, of course, it does not follow that there was a Khazar state in this period. They could have been Khazars under the rule of the Rus.
A Kievian prince named
Oleg (not to be confused with
Oleg of Kiev) was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in
1078 and shipped off to
Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region.
Byzantine, Georgian and Armenian sources
Kedrenos documented a joint attack on the Khazar state in
Kerch, ruled by
Georgius Tzul, by the Byzantines and Russians in
1016. Following 1016, there are more ambiguous references in Eastern Christian sources to Khazars that may or may not be using "Khazars" in a general sense (the Byzantines and Arabs, for example, called all steppe people "
Turks"; before them the
Romans had called them all "
Scythians"). Jewish Khazars were also mentioned in a Georgian chronicle as a group that inhabited
Derbent in the late
1100s.
At least one 12th-century Byzantine source refers to tribes practicing
Mosaic law and living in the
Balkans; see
Khalyzians. The connection between this group and the Khazars is rejected by most modern Khazar scholars.
Western sources
Giovanni di Plano Carpini, a thirteenth century Papal legate to the court of the
Mongol Khan
Guyuk, gave a list of the nations the Mongols had conquered in his account. One of them, listed among tribes of the Caucasus, Pontic steppe and the Caspian region, was the "
Brutakhi, who are Jews." The identity of the Brutakhi is unclear. Giovanni later refers to the Brutakhi as shaving their heads. Though Giovanni refers to them as Kipchaks, they may have been a remnant of the Khazar people. Alternatively, they may have been Kipchak converts to Judaism (possibly connected to the
Krymchaks or the
Crimean Karaites).
Date and extent of the conversion
The date of the conversion, and whether it occurred as one event or as a sequence of events over time, is widely disputed. The issues surrounding this controversy are discussed above.
The number of Khazars who converted to Judaism is also hotly contested.
D.M. Dunlop was of the opinion that only the upper class converted; this was the majority view until relatively recently. The relatively sudden shift in burial customs during the mid 800s suggests a more widespread conversion, which hypothesis has been recently championed by
Kevin A. Brook.
Khazar ancestry of Ashkenazim
 |
Arthur Koestler |
Some historians, and most famously the non-historian novelist
Arthur Koestler (in
The Thirteenth Tribe), have proposed that Jewish Khazars are the ancestors of most or all
Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jews, but the idea is controversial and is not supported by mainstream researchers. Recent genetic studies appear to demonstrate that
Middle Eastern elements dominate the Ashkenazi male line (see,
e.g., Y-chromosomal Aaron), but that the female line appears to have a substantially different history. Some have argued this suggests Middle Eastern men marrying into local
European communities [
4]meaning that Ashkenazim are either not related to Jewish Khazars or that Jewish Khazars represent only a small element of Ashkenazi ancestry rather than the dominant element suggested by Koestler. The theory for the most part is considered to have been widely discredited. Some historians and scientists recognize the need to specifically test the Khazar theory, rather than generalizing based on studies of other non-Khazar populations.[
5]
Another criticism that has been levelled against Koestler's work is that he largely appropriated his history from such sources as
D.M. Dunlop, sometimes without proper attribution. Moreover, it has been pointed out that his more speculative second half (discussing his theories about Ashkenazi descent) is largely unsupported; to the extent that Koestler referred to place-names and documentary evidence his analysis has been described as a mixture of flawed etymologies and misinterpreted primary sources.
Other critics of the Khazar-Ashkenazi theory have stated that the prime motive for even the small degree of acceptance of these ideas is because they have become political and
anti-Zionist in nature. The Khazar theory has been adopted by many anti-Zionists, especially in the Arab world; such proponents of the theory argue that if Ashkenazi Jews are primarily Khazar in origin, then they would be outside the scope of
God's promise of
Canaan to
Israelites as recorded in the
Bible. This ignores, of course, the fact that the Biblical promise explicitly includes converts, and the fact that over half of Israeli Jews are not Ashkenazi. (see
Demographics of Israel,
Jewish exodus from Arab lands) Some have countered that such charges of a political motive are not relevant to the core of the argument; in any event, Koestler himself was emphatically pro-
Zionist based upon
secular considerations.
The Khazar claim has also served as a catalyst for state antisemitism in the Soviet Union and a justification for conquest by Russian nationalists. [
6]
Others have claimed Khazar origins for such groups as the
Karaim,
Krymchaks,
Mountain Jews, and
Gruzim. There is little evidence to support any of these theories, although it is possible that some Khazar descendants found their way into these communities. Non-Jewish groups who claim at least partial descent from the Khazars include the
Kumyks and
Crimean Tatars; as with the above-mentioned Jewish groups, these claims are subject to a great deal of controversy and debate.
Main article: Khazars in fiction
The question of mass religious conversion is a central theme in
Milorad Pavić's international bestselling novel
Dictionary of the Khazars. The novel, however, contained many invented elements and had little to do with actual Khazar history. More recently, several novels, including
H.N. Turteltaub's
Justinian (about the life of Justinian II) and
Marek Halter's
Book of Abraham and
Wind of the Khazars have dealt either directly or indirectly with the topic of the Khazars and their role in history.
*
Avraham Firkovich*
Hisdai ibn Shaprut*
History of Kiev*
History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union*
Kevin Alan Brook*
Khazar Correspondence*
Khazar language*
Khazars in fiction*
Kievian Letter*
Jewish Polish history origins to 1600s*
Lev Gumilev*
List of Khazar rulers*
Saqsin*
Schechter Letter*
Soviet Union*
Doron M. Behar, Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Alessandro Achilli, Yarin Hadid, Shay Tzur, Luisa Pereira, Antonio Amorim, Lluı´s Quintana-Murci, Kari Majamaa, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Oleg Balanovsky, Ildus Kutuev, Andrey Pshenichnov, David Gurwitz, Batsheva Bonne-Tamir, Antonio Torroni, Richard Villems, and Karl Skorecki. "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event."
The American Journal of Human Genetics, March, 2006.
*
Kevin Alan Brook.
The Jews of Khazaria, 1st ed., Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1999. (
Second edition forthcoming)
*
Kevin Alan Brook. "Are Russian Jews Descended from the Khazars?" Khazaria.com*
Kevin Alan Brook. "Tales about Jewish Khazars in the Byzantine Empire Resolve an Old Debate". Los Muestros, No. 54, p. 27.*
Douglas M. Dunlop.
The History of the Jewish Khazars, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1954.
*Douglas M. Dunlop. "The Khazars."
The Dark Ages: Jews in Christian Europe, 711-1096. 1966.
*
Peter B. Golden.
Khazar Studies: An Historio-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars. Budapest: Akademia Kiado, 1980.
*Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service" (Journal Article in
Journal Asiatique, 2004.)
*Peter B. Golden. "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service: Onomastic Notes" (Journal Article in
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, 1993.)
*Peter B. Golden. "Khazars" (Book Chapter in
Turkish-Jewish Encounters: Studies on Turkish-Jewish Relations through the Ages, 2001.)
*
Norman Golb and
Omeljan Pritsak,
Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.
*
Roman K. Kovalev. "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the Monetary History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century? " Question Revisited."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 13 (2004): 97"129.
*Roman K. Kovalev. "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins: The Special Issue Dirhams of 837/8."
East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages, ed. Florin Curta, pp. 220"253. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
*Habib Levy,
et al. Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran: The Outset of the Diaspora. George W. Maschke, trans. Mazda Publishers, 1999.
*Timothy S. Miller, "The Legend of Saint Zotikos According to Constantine Akropolites."
Analecta Bollandiana vol. 112, 1994, pp. 339-376.
*
Thomas S. Noonan. "Did the Khazars Possess a Monetary Economy? An Analysis of the Numismatic Evidence."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982): 219-267.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "What Does Historical Numismatics Suggest About the History of Khazaria in the Ninth Century?"
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 (1983): 265-281.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "Why
Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab-Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with
Eastern Europe."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984): 151-282.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "Khazaria as an Intermediary between Islam and Eastern Europe in the Second Half of the Ninth Century: The Numismatic Perspective."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1985): 179-204.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "Byzantium and the Khazars: a special relationship?"
Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed.
Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin, pp. 109-132. Aldershot, England: Variorium, 1992.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "What Can Archaeology Tell Us About the Economy of Khazaria?"
The Archaeology of the Steppes: Methods and Strategies - Papers from the International Symposium held in Naples 9-12 November 1992, ed. Bruno Genito, pp. 331-345. Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1994.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Economy."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 9 (1995-1997): 253-318.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar-Byzantine World of the Crimea in the Early Middle Ages: The Religious Dimension."
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 10 (1998-1999): 207-230.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "Les Khazars et le commerce oriental."
Les Échanges au Moyen Age: Justinien, Mahomet, Charlemagne: trois empires dans l'économie médiévale, pp. 82-85. Dijon: Editions Faton S.A., 2000.
*Thomas S. Noonan. "The Khazar Qaghanate and its Impact on the Early Rus' State: The translatio imperii from Itil to Kiev."
Nomads in the Sedentary World, eds.
Anatoly Mikhailovich Khazanov and André Wink, pp. 76-102. Richmond, England: Curzon Press, 2001.
*Omeljan Pritsak. "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to
Judaism." (Journal Article in
Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1978)
*Omeljan Pritsak. "The Pre-Ashkenazic Jews of Eastern Europe in Relation to the Khazars, the Rus', and the Lithuanians".
Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in HIstorical Perspective, ed. Howard Aster and Peter J. Potichnyj. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1990. p. 7.
*Tamara Talbot Rice. The
Seljuks in
Asia Minor. Thames and Hudson, London, 1961. pp.18-19.
*Zolitor, Jeff, Wolfe, Peter "The Khazars" Philadelphia: Conference of the Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations, (2002), Canadian Jewish Outlook (Sept/Oct 2002) /www.csjo.org/pages/essays/essaykhazars.htm
* Vital, David (1999):
A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198219806
Books written before 1915
Itinéraires de la Terre Sainte, Carmody, (Brussels, 1847)
Sur le Khazars. Vivien St. Martin. (Paris, 1851)
Ibn Dasta, translated by Chwolson, (St. Petersburg, 1869)
Der khazarische Königsbrief, Cassel, (Berlin, 1877)
Der Ursprung der Magyaren, Vambéry, (Leipzig, 1882)
Das Buch se-Chazari, Hirschfield, (Breslau, 1885)
Pre- and Proto-historic Finns, Abercromby, (London, 1898)
Osteuropäische und Ostasiatische Streifzüge, Marquart, (Leipzig, 1903)
Jewish Quarterly Review, Volume iii, Pages 181"219, "An Unknown Khazar Document," (n.s., Philadelphia, 1913)
*Accounts of Oriental writers were published at St. Petersburg by Fraehn, (1821), and by Harkavy, (1874 et seq.)
*
The Khazars by Yair Davidiy
*
German Wikipedia map showing expansion of the Khazar Khaganate*
Khazaria.com*
Eurasian Nomads*
Khazar Historic Maps*
Norman Finkelshteyn's Jewish Warriors " The Khazar Khaganate*
The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com*
Khazar and West-Turkish dining habits*
Article on the Khazar military for wargamers
