Language isolate

A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or "genetic") relationship with other living languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common to any other language. They are in effect language families consisting of a single language. Commonly cited examples include Basque, Ainu, Burushaski, and Korean, though in each case a minority of linguists claims to have demonstrated a relationship with another language (see Dene-Caucasian, Karasuk, and Altaic, for example).

With context, a language isolate may be understood to be relatively isolated. For instance, Albanian, Armenian, and Greek are commonly called 'Indo-European isolates'. While part of the Indo-European family, they do not belong to any established branch, but instead form independent branches of their own. However, without such a disambiguating context, "isolate" is understood to be in the absolute sense.

Some languages became isolated in historical times, after all their known relatives became extinct. The Pirahã language of Brazil is one such example, the last surviving member of the Mura family. Others, like Basque, have been isolated for as long as their existence has been documented.

Language isolates may be seen as a special case of unclassified languages, being languages which remain unclassified even after extensive efforts. If eventually such efforts do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one; this has happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia, which has recently been placed in the Pama-Nyungan family. Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language constitutes a true isolate or not.

Genetic relationship

The term "genetic relationship" is meant in the genealogical sense of historical linguistics, which groups most languages spoken in the world today into a relatively small number of families, according to reconstructed descent from common ancestral languages. For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin is related to many other Sino-Tibetan languages. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own, which explains the exceptional interest that these languages have received from linguists.

Looking for relationships

It is possible, though not certain, that all languages spoken in the world today are related by descent from a single ancestral tongue. The established language families would then be only the upper branches of the genealogical tree of all languages. For this reason, language isolates have been the object of numerous studies seeking to uncover their genealogy. For instance, Basque has been compared with every living and extinct language family known, from Sumerian to the South Caucasian — without conclusive results.

There are some situations in which a language with no ancestor might arise. For example, if deaf parents were to raise a group of hearing children who have no contact with others until adulthood, they might develop a verbal language among themselves and keep using it later, teaching it to their children, and so on. Eventually, it could develop into the full-fledged language of a population, as has evidently happened in the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language. Such a situation is not very likely to occur at any one time but, over the tens of thousands of years of human history plus pre-history, the likelihood of this occurring at least a few times increases. There are also creole languages and constructed languages such as Esperanto which do not descend directly from a single ancestor as portrayed for most languages.

Isolate, not isolated or isolating

One should not confuse the concept of a language isolate with a language whose speakers are isolated in some sense, such as people who have little contact with other cultures (like the Rapa Nui language of Easter Island) or because they live far from regions where related languages are spoken (like the Malagasy language of Madagascar whose closest relatives are spoken in Borneo). These languages are not linguistic isolates.

Neither should isolates be confused with isolating languages, languages in which morphemes generally exist in the form of full-fledged words, as opposed to synthetic languages.

Extinct isolates

Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as isolates. Sumerian is well known for a language so ancient, well enough to be able to recognize modern relatives if they existed. However, many extinct languages are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them. Etruscan, for example, is sometimes claimed to be Indo-European; although most historical linguists believe this is unlikely, it's not yet possible to demonstrate it one way or the other. Similar situations pertain to many extinct isolates of America, such as Beothuk and Cayuse. A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be relatable to other languages once enough material is recovered, but material is unlikely to be recovered if a language was not written.

List of language isolates by continent

Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages

or language families:

Africa

Language	Comments
Laal	Endangered language spoken in some parts along the Chari River, Chad. Not yet classified, possibly a language isolate.
Hadza	Often listed as an outlier among the Khoisan languages, but this is considered unlikely.
Mekejir (Shabo)	Sometimes thought to be Nilo-Saharan, but it is extremely poorly known.
Meroitic	Extinct language of ancient kingdom of Meroe (Kush). Sometimes suggested to be Nilo-Saharan or Afrasiatic, but its texts have not been deciphered, and without that no classification is possible.
Oropom	Once spoken in Uganda and Kenya. Currently unclassified, possibly nonexistent.
Sandawe	Often listed as an outlier among the Khoisan languages of southern Africa.

Asia

Language	Comments
Ainu	Endangered language that is spoken in northern Japan. Historically a small closely related family of its own.
Burushaski	Spoken in northern Pakistan. Sometimes thought to be related to Yeniseian in a Karasuk family.
Elamite	Extinct language of Elamite Empire. Some conjecture a relationship to the Dravidian languages (see Elamo-Dravidian languages), but this is not well supported.
Kalto	Also called Nahali, it is an endangered language of western India. Often suggested to be a Munda language.
Ket	Spoken in Siberia. Part of the Yeniseian family, which is otherwise extinct or nearly so. Some linguists have attempted to show a further relationship with Burushaski called Karasuk.
Korean	Connections to the Altaic languages have also been proposed. See the Altaic hypothesis for these theories.
Kusunda	Moribund and nearly extinct language of western Nepal. Sometimes considered one of the Tibeto-Burman languages. Since linguists have either said its vocabulary is obviously Tibeto-Burman, or that it's almost completely free of Tibeto-Burman cognates, this may be a case of language interference in a dying tongue.
Nivkh	Also known as Gilyak. A Palaeosiberian language spoken in the lower Amur River basin and on the Sakhalin Islands. Has been linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan.
Pucikwar	Spoken on the Andaman Islands. Related to other Great Andamanese languages which are now extinct. Most linguists see a connection in the Andamanese family, but some propose closer ties with West Papuan.
Sumerian	Long-extinct but well-known language of ancient Sumeria.
Yukaghir family	Connections to Uralic languages have been proposed, but they have won little support among specialists in Uralic linguistics.

Australasia and Oceania

Language	Comments
Abinomn	Spoken in New Guinea. Also known as Baso, Foia.
Anem	Spoken on New Britain. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Pele-Ata.
Busa	Spoken in New Guinea. Also known as Odiai.
Enindhilyagwa	Spoken in the Gulf of Carpenteria, Australia. Also known as Andilyaugwa.
Isirawa	Spoken in New Guinea. Formerly classified as Trans-New Guinea.
Kakadju	Spoken in northern Australia. Also known as Gaagudu. Part of a proposal for an Arnhem Land family.
Kol	Spoken on New Britain.
Kuot	Spoken on New Ireland. Also known as Panaras.
Laragiya	Spoken in northern Australia.
Minkin	Extinct, northern Australia. Perhaps a member of the Yiwaidjan or Tankic family.
Ngurmbur	Spoken in northern Australia. Perhaps related to the Pama-Nyungan languages.
Pele-Ata	Spoken on New Britain. Also known as Wasi. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Anem.
Pyu	Spoken in New Guinea. Formerly classified as Kwomtari-Baibai.
Sulka	Spoken on New Britain.
Taiap	Spoken by around a hundred people in the East Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea. Also known as Gapun, formerly classified as Sepik-Ramu.
Tiwi	Spoken off northern Australia.
Umbugarla	Spoken in northern Australia. Part of a proposal for an Arnhem Land family.
Yalë	Spoken in New Guinea. Also known as Nagatman.
Yawa	Spoken on Yapen Island, New Guinea. Part of the Extended West Papuan proposal; sometimes considered two languages.
Yélî Dnye	Spoken on Rossel Island, Papua New Guinea. Also known as Yele. Perhaps related to Anem and Pele-Ata.
Yuri	Spoken in New Guinea. Also known as Karkar.

Europe

Language	Comments
Aquitanian	Spoken in parts of southern France and northern Spain until the Upper Middle Ages. Assumed to be an archaic form of Basque.
Basque	Known in its own language as Euskara; no known living relatives; found in the Basque region of France and Spain. Aquitanian is commonly regarded as related to or a direct ancestor of Basque. Some linguists have claimed similarities with various languages of the Caucasus, especially because of their ergative case system, but such resemblances are superficial, as a quarter of the world's languages are ergative. Other linguists have proposed a relation to Iberian.
Etruscan	Language of the ancient Etruscans in northwestern Italy; not well understood at present. Some have suggested Etruscan is in fact an Anatolian language, but better accepted is the suggestion of a Tyrrhenian family consisting of Etruscan, Lemnian, and possibly Raetic or Camunic.
Iberian	Extinct, not well known enough to classify. There are lexical coincidences with Basque, but it is hard to know if they are more than a result of vicinity.

North and Central America

Language	Comments
Adai	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Texas and Louisiana, United States.
Atakapa	Extinct. Spoken in Texas and Louisiana, United States. A connection to the Muskogean languages is sometimes proposed.
Beothuk	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Newfoundland, Canada. Sometimes thought to be Algonquian.
Cayuse	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Oregon and Washington, United States. Too poorly known to be classified.
Chimariko	Extinct. Spoken in California, United States.
Chitimacha	Extinct. Spoken in Louisiana, United States. A connection to the Muskogean languages has traditionally been proposed.
Coahuilteco	Extinct. Spoken in Texas, United States and northeastern Mexico. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Cotoname	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Texas, United States and northeastern Mexico.
Cuitlatec	Extinct. Spoken in Guerrero, Mexico.
Esselen	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in California, United States. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Haida	Spoken in Alaska, United States and British Columbia, Canada. Some proposals to connect to Na-Dené languages, but these have fallen in disfavor.
Huave	Spoken in Oaxaca, Mexico. Part of the Penutian hypothesis when extended to Mexico, but this idea has generally been abandoned.
Karankawa	Extinct. Spoken in Texas, United States. Proposed member of Coahuiltecan family, later under Sapir's Hokan phylum. These hypotheses are currently disfavored.
Karok	Spoken in California, United States. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Kootenai	Spoken in Idaho and Montana, United States and British Columbia, Canada.
Maratino	Extinct, too poorly known to classify. Spoken in northeastern Mexico.
Naolan (Oxalan)	Extinct, too poorly known to classify. Spoken in Tamaulipas, Mexico.
Natchez	Extinct. Spoken in Mississippi and Louisiana, United States. Often linked to Muskogean.
Quileute	Spoken in Washington, United States. Last survivor of the Chimakuan family. The Mosan hypothesis is now seen as a language area.
Quinigua	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in northeastern Mexico.
Salinan	Extinct. Spoken in California, United States. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Seri	Spoken in Sonora, Mexico. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Siuslaw	Extinct. Spoken in Oregon, United States. Likely related to Coos, Alsea, possibly the Wintuan languages. Part of the Penutian hypothesis.
Solano language	Extinct, too poorly known to classify. Spoken in Texas, United States and northeastern Mexico.
Takelma	Spoken in Oregon, United States. Part of the Penutian hypothesis. A specific relationship with Kalapuyan is now rejected.
Tarascan	Spoken in Mexico.
Timucua	Extinct but well attested. Spoken in Florida and Georgia, United States. A connection with the poorly known Tawasa language has been suggested, but this may be a dialect.
Washo	Spoken in California and Nevada, United States. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Xinca	Spoken in eastern Guatemala. A relationship with Lenca has been proposed.
Yana	Extinct. Spoken in California, United States. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Yuchi	Spoken in Georgia and Oklahoma, United States. Connections to Siouan languages have been proposed.
Zuni	Spoken in New Mexico, United States. Connections to Penutian languages have been proposed, but is generally considered unlikely.

South America

Language	Comments
Aikaná	Spoken in Rondônia, Brazil. Arawakan has been suggested.
Andoque	Spoken in Colombia and Peru. Possibly Witotoan.
Betoi	Extinct. Spoken in Colombia. Paezan has been suggested.
Camsá	Spoken in Colombia.
Canichana	Spoken in Bolivia. A connection with the extinct Tequiraca (Auishiri) has been proposed.
Cayubaba	Spoken in Bolivia.
Cofán	Spoken in Colombia and Ecuador. Sometimes classified as Chibchan, but the similarities appear to be due to borrowings.
Culle	Extinct. Spoken in Peru. Possibly related to the extinct Cholonan languages.
Gamela	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Maranhão, Brazil.
Huamoé	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Pernambuco, Brazil.
Irantxe	Spoken in Mato Grosso, Brazil. Arawakan has been suggested.
Itonama	Spoken in Bolivia. Paezan has been suggested.
Jotí	Spoken in Venezuela. Also known as Yuwana.
Karirí	Extinct. Spoken in Paraíba, Pernambuco, and Ceará, Brazil. Likely demonstration of being Macro-Gê.
Kukurá	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Mato Grosso, Brazil.
Mapudungu	Spoken in Chile and Argentina. Also known as Araucano or Araucanian. Considered a family of 2 languages by Ethnologue. Variously part of Andean, macro-Panoan, or macro-Waikuruan proposals.
Movima	Spoken in Bolivia.
Munichi	Spoken in Peru.
Nambiquaran	Spoken in Mato Grosso, Brazil.
Natú	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Pernambuco, Brazil.
Nicaraguan Sign Language	Spoken in Nicaragua.
Omurano	Spoken in Peru. A tentative family comprised of Omuranao, Candoshi, Tequiraca, and Taushiro has been proposed.
Otí	Extinct. Spoken in São Paulo, Brazil. Macro-Gêan has been suggested.
Pankararú	Extinct. Spoken in Pernambuco, Brazil.
Pirahã	Spoken in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest. Related to other Muran languages that have recently become extinct.
Puquina	Extinct. Spoken in Bolivia. Puquina words survive in the Callahuaya jargon of Quechua.
Sabela	Spoken in Ecuador and Peru. Also known as Waorani.
Taushiro	Spoken in Peru. A tentative family comprised of Omuranao, Candoshi, Tequiraca, and Taushiro has been proposed.
Tequiraca	Spoken in Peru. Also known as Auishiri. A tentative family comprised of Omuranao, Candoshi, Tequiraca, and Taushiro has been proposed.
Ticuna	Spoken in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil. Perhaps related to the extinct Yuri language.
Tonkawa	Extinct. Spoken in Texas, United States.
Tunica	Extinct. Spoken in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, United States. Often linked to Muskogean.
Tuxá	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Bahia and Pernambuco, Brazil.
Warao	Spoken in Guyana, Surinam, and Venezuela. Sometimes linked to Paezan.
Xokó	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Alagoas and Pernambuco, Brazil.
Xukurú	Extinct, poorly known. Spoken in Pernambuco and Paraíba, Brazil.
Yámana	Spoken in Chile.
Yuracaré	Spoken in Bolivia. Connections to Mosetenan, Pano-Tacanan, Arawakan, Chon and Greenberg's [[Equatorial languages]] have been proposed.
Yuri	Extinct. Spoken in Colombia and Brazil. Perhaps related to Ticuna
Yurumanguí	Extinct. Spoken in Colombia.

External links

* Orphans with no Families: Languages missing genetic relationships

Bibliography

* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
* Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
* Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
* Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671106-9. (Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/).
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
* Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).