Lion
Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is vulnerable
image = Lions snoozing in the sun.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Mammalia | ordo = Carnivora | familia = Felidae | genus = Panthera | species = P. leo | binomial = Panthera leo | binomial_authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | synonyms = Felis leo Linnaeus, 1758
The Lion (Panthera leo) is a mammal of the family Felidae and one of four "big cats" in the panthera genus. The lion is the second largest living cat, after the tiger. The male lion, easily recognized by his mane, weighs between 150-225 Kg (330-500 lb) and females average 120-150 kg (260-330 lb) [1]. In the wild, lions live for around 10–14 years, while in captivity they can live over 20 years. To reproduce, the lions mate for long periods of time. | The Gir Forest in India is the last natural habitat of the Asiatic Lions. |
| Distribution map of lions in Africa |
In historic times the habitat of lions spanned much of Eurasia, ranging from Portugal to India, and all of Africa. Around the beginning of the current era they died out from Western Europe and since the 2nd century, the lion has disappeared from Europe. Between the late 19th century and early 20th century they also became extinct from North Africa and Middle East. Now, most of the population lives in Central Africa, and their numbers are rapidly decreasing, estimated as between 16,000 and 30,000 living in the wild, down from an estimated 100,000 in the early 1990s. The population is even more in jeopardy, because the remaining populations are often geographically isolated from each other, which causes inbreeding. [2]
The Asiatic Lion (subspecies Panthera leo persica), which in historical times ranged from Turkey to India through Iran (Persia) and from Caucasus to Yemen, was eradicated from Palestine by the Middle Ages and from most of the rest of Asia after the arrival of readily available firearms in the 18th century. In Iran the last lion was shot in 1942. The subspecies now survives only in and around the Gir Forest of northwestern India. About 300 lions live in a 1412 km² (558 square miles) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat, which covers most of the forest. Their numbers remain stable.
Lions had become extinct in Greece, their last European outpost, by 100. Other extinct subspecies are the Cape Lion, the European Cave Lion (subspecies Panthera leo spelaea) which coexisted with humans throughout the last Ice Age, and the American lion (subspecies Panthera leo atrox), a close relative of the European cave lion (not to be confused with the mountain lion or puma).The first lions were presumed to have been maneless. Until around 10 000 years ago, maneless forms seem to have persisted in Europe, and possibly the New World. The maned form may have appeared c. 320 000â€"190 000 years ago. This maned form may have had a selective advantage that enabled it to expand to replace the range of earlier maneless forms throughout Africa and western Eurasia by historic times.[Yamaguchi, N., A. Cooper, L. Werdelin & D.W. Macdonald. 2004. Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): a review. Journal of Zoology, 263: 329-342 Cambridge University Press ] The mane has evolved due to sexually selective pressure driving the trait to an exaggerated point where it no longer serves any other function. The trait has reached the point where cost of maintaining the mane has begun to outweigh its benefits. In fact, lions with particularly large manes often have trouble with thermoregulation. [Simandle, E. T. & C. R. Tracy. 2003. The main question: Untangling why lions have it. SICB Annual Meeting & Exhibition Final Program and Abstracts 2003.]
In the past scientists believed that the "distinct" subspecific status of some subspecies could be justified by their external morphology, like the size of their mane. This morphology was used to identify them, like the Barbary lion and Cape lion. However, now it is known that various extrinsic factors influence the colour and size of a lion's mane, like the ambient temperature.[West P.M., Packer C. 2002. Sexual selection, temperature, and the lion's mane. Science, 297, 1339â€"1343. ] The cooler ambient temperature in e.g. European and North American zoos can result in heavy mane. Therefore, the heavy mane is an inappropriate marker for identifying subspecies.[Barnett, R., N. Yamaguchi, I. Barnes & A. Cooper. 2006. Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion Panthera leo: Implications for its ex situ conservation. Conservation Genetics. Online full-text pdf][Yamaguchi, N. & Haddane, B. (2002). The North African Barbary lion and the Atlas Lion Project. International Zoo News 49: 465-481.]
Maneless lions have been reported in Senegal. As well as having an inherited component, the presence, absence and degree of mane is also associated with sexual maturity and testosterone production. Castrated lions have minimal manes. The original male white lion from Timbavati was also maneless. Manelessness is also found in inbred lion populations; inbreeding also resutls in poor fertility. A heavy mane may provide an indicator of a lion's genetic and physical health. It may also afford him some protection in fights. In some animal species, females show a preference for males with better outward displays of fertility and vigour. It is possible that lionesses more actively solicit mating with heavily maned lions in prides led by a coalition of 2 or 3 males, though there seem to be no published studies. | Comparative view of the human and lion frames, c1860. |
Lions are predatory carnivores who live in family groups, called prides. The family consists of related females, their cubs of both sexes, and one or more males (often brothers) who mate with the adult females. Although it was once thought that females did most of the hunting in the pride, it is now known that males contribute to hunting. All male lions display hunting skills while they have yet to capture a pride of their own. Even males who have captured a pride of their own may still hunt. The frequency of hunting by male lions who have captured a pride is influenced by the terrain and available prey. Males in more wooded environments hunt for themselves far more frequently than males on the open savannah. Additionally, males appear to prefer buffalo as prey where females appear to prefer smaller prey such as the Blue Wildebeest and zebra. Regardless of who kills the prey, the male usually eats his fill first with the rest of the pride staying at a respectful distance.
Both males and females will defend the pride against intruders. Typically, males will not tolerate outside males, and females will not tolerate outside females. Males are expelled from the pride or leave on their own when they reach maturity. The male lion is a superb master and defender of his pride and territory.
When a new male (or a coalition) takes over a pride and ousts the previous master(s), the conquerors often kill any remaining cubs. This is explained by the fact that the females would not become fertile and receptive until the cubs grow up or die. The male lions reach maturity at about 3 years of age and are capable of taking over another pride at 4-5 years old. They begin to age (and thus weaken) at around 8. This leaves a short window for their children to be born and mature — the fathers have to procreate as soon as they take over the pride.
Sometimes a female may defend her and the ousted male's children from the new master, but such actions are rarely successful.
Image:Serengeti_Lion_Running.jpg|A lioness hunting warthogs in the western corridor of the SerengetiImage:Lion-with-half-eaten-warthog.jpg|A male lion and what's left of his warthog victim.Image:Stuffed-lion-rolling-in-grass.jpg|A male lion resting by his half-eaten meal.Image:Lionesse-with-young.jpg|A pair of lionesses with a young cub in Botswana.Image:Lionesse-with-youngsters.jpg|A lioness followed by three cubs at dusk.Image:Lion_drinking.jpg|A male lion drinking water.Image:04150001.JPGImage:04150008.JPGAttacks on humansWhile a hungry lion may occasionally attack a human that passes near, some (usually male) lions seem to seek out human prey. Some of the more publicized cases include the Tsavo maneaters and the Mfuwe man-eater. In both cases the hunters who killed the lions wrote books detailing the lions' "careers" as man-eaters. In folklore, man-eating lions are sometimes considered demons.
The Mfuwe and Tsavo incidents did bear some similarities. The lions in both the incidents were all larger than normal, lacked manes and seemed to suffer from tooth decay. Some have speculated that they might belong to an unclassified species of lion, or that they may have been sick and could not have easily caught prey.
There have also been recorded attacks on humans by lions in captivity; tigers are statistically much more likely to attack humans in captivity. Wild lions are also much less likely to attack humans than wild tigers are.Subspecies | Asiatic Lioness Panthera leo persica, name MOTI, born in Helsinki Zoo (Finland) October 1994, arrived Bristol Zoo (England) January 1996. The Gir Forest in India is the natural home of the Asiatic lion but this animal was born in captivity. |
The major differences between lion subspecies are location, mane appearance, size and distribution. However some of the forms listed below are debatable. Genetic evidence suggests that all modern lions derived from one common ancestor only circa 55,000 years ago. Therefore most sub-Saharan lions could be considered a single subspecies Panthera leo leo.
Most scientists today recognise subspecies (not all named here are considered valid by all scientists).[Barnett, R., N. Yamaguchi, I. Barnes & A. Cooper. 2006. Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion Panthera leo: Implications for its ex situ conservation. Conservation Genetics. Online pdf]
Panthera leo azandica - North East Congo lion.
Panthera leo bleyenberghi - Katanga lion or Southwest African lion.
Panthera leo europaea - European lion. Extinct around 100 due to persecution and over-exploitation, though may have been Panthera leo persica. Inhabited the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, southern France and the Iberian Peninsula. It was a very popular object of hunting among Romans, Greeks and Macedonians.
Panthera leo goojratensis - Indian Lion.
Panthera leo hollisteri - Congo lion.
Panthera leo krugeri - South African lion or Southeast African lion.
Panthera leo leo (P.l.berberisca) - Barbary lion; extinct at least in the wild and was believed to be extinct in captivity. This was the largest of the lion subspecies, which ranged from Morocco to Egypt. The last wild Barbary lion was killed in Morocco in 1922 due to excessive hunting. Barbary lions were kept by Roman emperors to take part in the gladiator arenas. Roman notables, including Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar, often ordered the mass slaughter of Barbary lions - up to 400 at a time. [3]
Panthera leo melanochaita - Cape lion; extinct in 1860.
Panthera leo massaicus - Massai lion.
Panthera leo maculatus - Marozi. Status as subspecies is unconfirmed. Distinguishable from other subspecies by its spotted coat. Thought to be extinct since 1931. May have been a natural leopard/lion hybrid.
Panthera leo nubica - East African lion.
Panthera leo persica - Asiatic lion or South Asian lion. 350 currently exist in and near the Gir Forest of India. Once widespread from Turkey, across the Middle East, to India and Bangladesh, but large prides and daylight activity made it easier to poach than tigers or leopards.
Panthera leo roosevelti - Abyssinian lion.
Panthera leo somaliensis - Somali lion.
Panthera leo senegalensis - West African lion, or Senegal lion.
Panthera leo verneyi - Kalahari lion. Distinct behaviour and anatomy has been observed in this subspecies.
Besides these subspecies there are also some prehistoric ones. [Burger J, Rosendahl W, Loreille O, Hemmer H, Eriksson T, Götherström A, Hiller J, Collins MJ, Wess T, Alt KW. (2004). Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion Panthera leo spelaea. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol., 30, 841â€"849. Online pdf]
Panthera leo atrox - American Lion or North American cave lion, about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Panthera leo fossilis - Early Middle Pleistocene European primitive cave lion, about 500,000 years ago.
Panthera leo sinhaleyus - Sri Lanka lion or Ceylon lion.
Panthera leo spelaea - European cave lion, Eurasian cave lion or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion (300,000 to 10,000 years ago).[Burger J, Rosendahl W, Loreille O, Hemmer H, Eriksson T, Götherström A, Hiller J, Collins MJ, Wess T, Alt KW. (2004). Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion Panthera leo spelaea. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol., 30, 841â€"849. Online pdf]
Panthera leo toscana - Tuscany lion - European primitive cave lion, was present around 1.6 million years ago.
Panthera leo vereshchagini - East Siberian and Beringian cave lion
Panthera leo youngi - North-Eastern Pleistocene China cave lion, 350,000 years ago.Although they are not often heard of due to their rarity, white lions do exist, in Timbavati, South Africa. There is a recessive gene in white lions that gives them their unusual color (many white tigers with this same gene are bred for zoos and animal shows). A white lion has a disadvantage when it comes to hunting: it can be given away by its color, unlike the regular lion which blends in with its surroundings. White lions are born almost pure white withouth the normal camouflaging spots seen in lion cubs. Their colour gradually darkens to cream or ivory colour (known as blonde).The Timbavati White LionsWhite lions were first recorded in 1928 and in the early 1940s. In 1959, a pride with 2 white cubs was seen near Tshokwane in the Kruger Park, but later vanished. Albino lions had been recorded in the area according to David Alderton's book "Wild Cats Of The World." In 1974, a light grey lion cub was born at Birmingham Zoo, Alabama.
In 1975 2 white cubs were seen at Timbavati Game Reserve, adjacent to Kruger National Park. Their story is detailed by Chris McBride in his book "The White Lions of Timbavati". The 2 cubs, Temba (Zulu for "hope") and Tombi ("girl") had a tawny brother called Vela ('surprise'). In 1976, a white female cub called Phuma ("to be out of the ordinary") was sighted in the Timbavati pride. She was killed by hunters when 2 yeas old and her skin sold in a shop in the town of Sabi. In 1977, a 2 year old blonde lion was observed in the Central District.
After Phuma was killed, Temba, Tombi and Vela (who carried the recessive white mutation) were taken to the National Zoo in Pretoria, South Africa. Temba sired several cubs and died in 1996. Tombi had a white cub in 1981, but it did not survive. Vela sired a litter, but it isn't known whether any of his lineage survive. The white lions in the Ouwehands Dierenpark (Netherlands) and a private South African Zoo appear to be from Temba, or possibly Vela, lines. A few other white or blonde cubs were born in Timbavati after temba, Tombi and Vela were removed. One female lived for several years until being killed in a territorial fight in 1993. Since then, the chinchilla ("white" or "blonde") mutation seems to have been lost in the wild.
Another white lion bloodline, possibly part of the Timbavati bloodline, comes from a white male captured in the Timbavati area in the late 1980's and kept by a private reserve.
Temba has left descendents in captivity. A heterozygous tawny lion at Pretoria Zoo carries the mutation and could pass this on to his offspring. Two heterozygous tawny males from the Cincinnati Zoo are now at a private reserve in Africa. A white female and a heterozygous tawny male were sent to the Zoological Animal Reproduction Center in Indiana, USA. A second female was unfortunately killed in a fight with the white female while on loan to a zoo.The Johannesburg Zoo StrainIn 1977, Johannesburg Zoo caught a heterozygous tawny male that had a white brother. This zoo claims to be the first to have bred white lions in captivity. Timba, an injured tawny lion from Timbavati, was taken to the zoo for medical treatment. He was believed to have the white gene and was bred to a captive female and then to one of his own daughters. This produced a white lioness called Bella in 1982 who later produced many white cubs. This bloodline is represented at zoos in Philadelphia, Toronto, China, Germany and Japan.
An unrelated strain of white lions at the Johannesburg Rhino And Lion Park was founded by an orphan or abandoned white cub called Thandile discovered in the wild in the park in 1999. Thandile has blue eyes, but is not albino. In 1998, a half-eaten white cub had been found in the Rhino and Lion Reserve.The Kruger and Umfolozi White LionsIn 1979, three different litters containing white lions were recorded in Kruger National Park. In March 1979 a female lion with 3 white cubs was observed neat Tshokwane. In September 1979 another 3 white cubs (from 2 different lionesses) was seen. In 1979 a litter of white female cubs was captured from Kruger National Park and treated for sarcoptic mange. In 1979, a white lion was observed in the Umfolozi Game Reserve in Zululand.White Lions of Unknown AncestryFour white lion cubs were born at the Papanack Park Zoo outside Ottawa, but did not remain white. A white cub was born at an African Lion Safari in Florida (date uncertain) but did not remain white.White Lions in Captivity TodayThe New York Times index for 1980 reported the birth of 3 white lion cubs at King Kong Zoo in Tampa, the first outside of South Africa. Two white lionesses and 2 tawny heterozygous lions from Johannesburg were exhibited in the USA in 1993 at Philadelphia Zoo. Philadelphia zoo apparently received two white lions from a German zoo, one named "Banjo". Kanya, born there in May 1994, was the result of much inbreeding back to Timba. All white lions in captivity can trace ancestry to the Timba-Bella mating.
In 1995 there were fewer than 10 white lions worldwide. That year, Sarmoti, a white female, and Shaka, a heterozygous tawny male, from Johannesburg Zoo were acquired by Siegfried and Roy. By September 1996, Siegfried and Roy had seven white lions, some of which were held at Fritz Wurm's Safari Park in Stuckenbrock in Germany. Descendants of Siegfried and Roy's white lions, bred from those held in Germany, went to Cincinnati Zoo to be exhibited as "The White Lions of Timbavati".
White lions from the different strains were brought together by the Zoological Animal Reproduction Center to increase the genetic diversity of captive white lions and reduce inbreeding depression.
At present, all of the white lions come from the Kruger park subspecies and have not been bred with any other lion subspecies except for Toronto Zoo's white lioness which has been bred to a generic (mongrel) male.White Lion GeneticsWhite lions are not albinos but are leucistic. They have pigment visible in the eyes (which are the normal hazel or golden colour), paw pads and lips. Blue-eyed white lions exist and may be selectively bred. The leucistic trait is due to the chinchilla mutation that inhibits the deposition of pigment along the hair shaft, restricting it to the tips. The less pigment there is along the hair shaft, the paler the lion. As a result "white" lions range from blonde through to near white. The males have pale manes and tail tips instead of the usual dark tawny or black.See panthera hybrid, liger and tigon for detailed information on lion hybrids. Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos, but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conserving species and subspecies. Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China.
Lions have also been known to breed with tigers (most often Amur and Bengal) to create hybrids called ligers and tigons. They have also been crossed with leopards to produce leopons and jaguars to produce jaglions. The marozi is reputedly a spotted lion or a naturally occurring leopon, while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion/jaguar/leopard hybrid called a lijagulep.
The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female lion is absent, ligers grow larger than either parent. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species (spots and stripes on a sandy background). Male ligers are sterile, but female ligers are often fertile.
The less common tigon is a cross between the lioness and the male tiger. Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are often relatively small, only weighing up to 150 kilograms (350 lb), which is about 20% smaller than lions. Like ligers, they have physical and behavioural traits from both parental species and males are sterile.*Lion-baiting
*Lion taming
*Marsupial lionLions are recurring symbols in the coat of arms of royalty and chivalry, particularly in the UK, where the lion is also a national symbol of the British people, and in Ethiopia, where it is a symbol of the Monarchy. Lions appear in the art of China, even though lions have never lived in China. No animal has been given more attention in art and literature. C.A.W. Guggisberg, in his book Simba, says the lion is referred to 130 times in the Bible, for example in 1 Peter 5:8 where the Devil is compared to a roaring lion::`seeking someone to devour`.
The lion can also be found in stone age cave paintings.
*Although lions are not native to China, the Chinese people believe that lions protect humans from evil spirits, hence the Chinese New Year Lion Dance to scare away demons and ghosts.
*The lion was adopted by the British people as their mascot together with the bulldog.
*It is depicted as, "the courageous, and tough" in many ideas.
*The lion is also a popular sport mascot. It was used as the FIFA World Cup mascot held in England in 1966 and the European Football Championships in 1996. The lion again became mascot with Goleo VI for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. A British group, The Lighting Seeds (inspired by the England football team emblem) have written the song Three Lions, which is the team`s nickname. The National Football League also has the Detroit Lions as one of its teams. The Macedonian national football team are known as the "Red Lions" among their fans.
*The island of Singapore is named for the Malay word singa (lion).
*Disney's The Lion King.Lions in art | World Cup Willie the mascot of the FIFA World Cup in 1966 |
Lions have been widely used in sculpture and statuary to provide a sense of majesty and awe, especially on public buildings, including:
* The Great Sphinx of Giza.
* Nelson's column in London's Trafalgar Square.
* The entrance to the Britannia Bridge crossing of the Menai Strait, Wales.
* Patience and Fortitude, the large stone lions outside the main branch of the New York Public Library, also the mascots of the New York and Brooklyn Public Library system.
* Chinese lions are frequently used in sculpture in traditional Chinese architecture. For instance, in the Forbidden City in Beijing, China, two lion statues are seen in almost every door entrance.
* The entrance to Sigiriya, the Lion-Rock of Sri Lanka, was through the Lion Gate, the mouth of a stone Lion. The paws of the lion can still be seen today. It is one of the 7 world heritage sites in Sri Lanka.
* The Dying Lioness is a relief panel from 650 BCE, Nineveh (modern day Iraq) depicting a half-paralyzed lioness pierced with arrows. This piece currently resides at home.Lions in literatureThe Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is the second book in the Narnia series written by C.S. Lewis. Aslan is the eponymous lion who features throughout the stories.
The Wizard of Oz features the Cowardly Lion.
*The japanese comic called Digimon has a lion-inspired monster called Leomon.
*The cartoon and comic Thundercats stars a team of humanoid cats led by a warrior named Lion-O.Lions in media*There have been five different lions used as the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios, based on the mascot of Columbia University, MGM publicist Howard Dietz's alma mater. Although the five lions went by the name of Leo the Lion, the first was named Slats. Slats was trained by Volney Phifer to roar on cue, as can be seen at the beginning of MGM movies. Leo died in 1936 and is buried in Gillette, New Jersey.
*In 1966, the live-action picture Born Free appeared, based on the true-life international bestselling book of the same title. It covered the story of the Kenyan lioness Elsa, and the efforts of Joy Adamson and her game-warden husband George in training the lioness for release back into the wild.
*In 1994, Disney made a hugely successful animated feature film called The Lion King, during the height of Disney animation in the mid 90's.
*Osamu Tezuka made an anime called The White Lion about a little lion cub who grew up without parents and had to rely on his friends to survive from hunters and other prey.
*In 2005, the Kenyan lioness Kamuniak captured international attention when she adopted oryx calves, an animal species that is normally preyed upon by lions. She fought off predators and lion prides who attempted to eat her charges. Kamuniak's story was captured in the Animal Planet episode, "Heart of a Lioness".Lions in heraldryThe lion is a common image in heraldry, traditionally symbolizing bravery, valor and strength.
The following positions of heraldic lions are recognized: rampant, guardant, reguardant, passant, statant, couchant, salient, sejant, dormant.
The image of lion appears on many flags, coats of arms and emblems. For example, it symbolises the Sinhala people (Sinhalese Singha = Lion). Local folklore tells of Prince Vijaya, the first of the Sinhalese kings, as being the son of Sinhabahu, who was fathered by a lion. See history of Sri Lanka. Image:Armsofengland.png| The coat of Arms of EnglandImage:JerusalemEmblem.jpg|The Lion of Judah on the emblem of Jerusalem Image:Emblem of India.svg|Emblem of India Image:Sri lanka coa.png|Lion on the coat of arms of Sri Lanka Image:Royal Arms of Scotland.png|The Royal Arms of Scotland Image:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom.png|The Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom Image:Flag_Belgium_flanders.svg|Flag of Flanders, BelgiumImage:Coat of arms of the Netherlands.png|The Coat of arms of the Kingdom of the NetherlandsLion as place names*Leeuwarden, Netherlands
*León, Spain
*Leon, Guanajuato, Mexico
*Lviv (Lvov, Lwów), Ukraine
*Lyon, France
*Sierra Leone
*Singaraja, Bali
*Singaparna, Tasikmalaya, West Java
*Singapore
*Zalambessa, Africa*Live Lion Webcams - Live Webcam of Lions at a Zoo
*Lion Conservation Soc.
*Lion: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
*ARKive - images and movies of the lion (Panthera leo)
*White Lions
*Lion/Tiger Encounter
*Africa Animal Database
*Lion Pictures, Facts, and Observations
*Lions In Heraldry
*Heraldic dictionary. Positions of Beasts as Exemplified by Lions
*Lions in Jewish art
*Lion facts - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
*THE HERALDIC BLAZON. THE LION RAMPANT OF SCOTLAND
*Lion photos and information
*Digimorph.org - 3D animations of juvenile and adult lion skulls -- both inside and out
*Lion Research Center - the official website of a research group at the U. of Minnesota that has conducted extensive field research on lions and has published over 50 peer-reviewed scientific articles on lions.
*Lion Conservation Fund - A fund dedicated to the research and conservation of the lion.
*Nature Documentary: "The Vanishing Lions"
*Asiatic Lion Information Centre
*Lion photos (from the Maasai Mara Park, Kenya])
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