Louisiana (New France)
 |
The Louisiana Territory in 1803, which was a portion of the historical extent of French Louisiana |
Louisiana (
French:
La Louisiane) was the name of an administrative district of
New France. Under French control from the 17th century to the 18th century, the area was named in honor of
Louis XIV of France by French explorer
Cavalier de la Salle. Originally covering an expansive territory that included most of the drainage basin of the
Mississippi River and stretched from the
Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico and from the
Appalachian Mountains to the
Rocky Mountains, Louisiana was divided into two regions, known as Upper Louisiana (French:
Haute-Louisiane ), which began north of the
Arkansas River, and Lower Louisiana (French:
Basse-Louisiane). The present-day
U.S. state of
Louisiana is named for the historical region, although occupying only a small portion of the territory claimed by the French.
Explored under the reign of
Louis XIV of France, and named by
Robert Cavelier de La Salle in
1682 in his honor, Louisiana was not greatly developed due to a lack of human and financial means. The French defeat in the
Seven Years' War ended with France having been forced to cede the eastern part of territory in
1763 to the victorious British, and the western part to Spain as compensation for that country's loss of
Florida. France regained sovereignty of the western territory in a secret treaty with Spain, but
Napoleon Bonaparte decided to sell the territory in 1803 to the
United States, ending France's presence in Louisiana.
In the 18th century, Louisiana included most of what is now the
Midwestern United States region. Specifically demarcating the territory is difficult as it did not have formal, defined
borders in the modern sense, as the only fortified area with any major population centers was the
Mississippi Valley. Generally speaking, Louisiana bordered the
Great Lakes, particularly
Lake Michigan and
Lake Erie towards the north. On the east, the French colony was separated by the
Appalachian Mountains from the
Thirteen British Colonies. The western
Great Plains and the
Rocky Mountains region marked the end of the zone of French control and the beginning of the "wild west" that was dominated by
Native American tribes. Louisiana's southern border was formed by the
Gulf of Mexico, which served as the
port for the colony.
The colony was mostly flat, which aided European movement through the territory. Its average elevation is less than 1000
metres. The territory becomes more mountainous towards the north, with the notable exception of the
Ozark Mountains, which are located in the south.
Lower Louisiana
The lower part of Louisiana (French:
Basse-Louisiane), has a
temperate climate which is marked by
hurricanes in the regions along the coast of the
Gulf of Mexico that generally occur between late
summer and early
autumn. Winter
frosts permit the cultivation of
rice,
tobacco, and
indigo. The landscape of this area is characterised by many
wetlands, with large
marshes in the
Mississippi River Delta and accompanying
bayou, which started when rivulets and streams became separate from the Mississippi to form long, stagnant waterways, forming a navigable network of thousands of kilometres of water.
Upper Louisiana
The upper part of Louisiana (French:
Haute-Louisiane), is mostly large, fertile
plains. The climate is hot during the summer, while influenced by polar airflow in the
winter. In the 17th century, large parts of the area were covered with
forests, which were useful for sheltering animals bred for the
fur trade. The forests were mostly cleared in the following 150 years.
Summary chronology
* 1673 : The Frenchmen
Louis Jolliet and
Jacques Marquette begin the exploration of the Mississippi river
* 1682 :
Cavalier de la Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth
* 1699 :
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville discovers the coast of Louisiana
* 1701 :
Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac founds
Detroit* 1717 : Official drafting of blacks begins in Louisiana
* 1718 :
New Orleans is founded
* 1723 :
New Orleans becomes the official capital of French Louisiana
* 1763 : With the
Treaty of Paris France loses Louisiana
* 1800 : Secret
Treaty of San Ildefonso signed, France regains Louisiana
* 1803 :
Napoléon Bonaparte sells Louisiana to the United States
Exploration and conquest of French Louisiana
17th century: the time of exploration
In 1660, France started in a policy of expansion into
North America from
Canada. The objectives were to locate a the
Northwest passage to China, to exploit the territories' natural resources such as
fur and mineral ores, and to convert the native population to Christianity. Fur traders began exploring west of Canada, called the
pays d'en haut at the time. In 1659,
Pierre-Esprit Radisson and
Médard Chouart des Groseilliers reached the western end of
Lake Superior. Priests founded missions, such as the Mission of
Sault Sainte Marie, in 1668. On
May 17 1673,
Louis Jolliet and
Jacques Marquette began the exploration of the
Mississippi river, which they called the
Sioux Tongo (the large river) or
Michissipi. They reached the mouth of the
Arkansas River, and then went up-river, having learned that it ran towards the
Gulf of Mexico and not towards the
Pacific Ocean as they had previously presumed. In 1675, Marquette founded a mission in the village of
Kaskaskias, on the
Illinois River, which became permanent in 1690.
|
Cavelier de La Salle on an 1981 French stamp |
In 1682,
Cavelier de La Salle and the Italian
Henri de Tonti descended to the Mississippi delta. They left Fort Crèvecoeur on the Illinois River, accompanied by 23 Frenchmen and 18 Indians (Amerindians Havard G, Vidal C.e, ' ' History of America française' ', p. 106.). They built Fort Prud'homme, which later became the city of
Memphis. They asserted French sovereignty on the whole of the valley and called it
Louisiane in honor of the king
Louis XIV. They sealed alliances with the
Quapaw Indians. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they drew up a cross and a column there carrying the weapons of king de France. Forwarding sets out again by the same way towards Canada and La Salle returns to
Versailles . There, he convinced the minister of the marine to grant the command of Louisiana to him. He pretends that it is close to
New-Spain by drawing a chart on which Mississippi appeared much further west than it is in reality. He sets up a maritime forwarding with four ships and 320 emigrants [ http://www.herodote.net/histoire04090.htm Hérodote.net ], "April 9, 1682, Cavelier de La Salle baptizes Louisiana", but this one turns to disaster: it does not manage to find the delta of Mississippi and is assassinated in
1687 .
XVIIIth century : beginning of true colonization
In 1701, the Frenchman
Antoine de la Mothe, sieur de Cadillac founds a fort at the site of the current city of
Detroit, in
Michigan. At first, the colony is called
Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit in the honor of the Comte de Pontchartrain, minister for the navy, and in connection with the configuration of the lakes
Saint Clair and
Erie, of which it occupies the western banks. Cadillac wishes thus to prevent that the
beaver fur trade does not fall into the hands of
Iroquois and of the British merchants. His intention is also to join together at the station of Detroit the Amerindian allies and to assimilate them to the French nation. He leaves
Montreal on June 5, 1701 with a hundred people, half inhabitants, half soldiers, and two missionaries. June 24, the group is installed on the site where soon the construction of a fort starts. In 1698,
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville leaves
La Rochelle and explores the area of the mouth of Mississippi. He stops between Cat Island and Ship Island it
February 13 1699 , then continues his explorations of the continent, at
Biloxi, with his/her brother
Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. There he built a precarious fort, called
Maurepas, before returning to France. He returns twice to the Gulf of Mexico and establishes a fort at
Mobile in 1702. 1699 to 1702, Pierre Moyne d' Iberville is the
governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeds him at this post from 1702 to 1713. He is again governor from 1716 until 1724 and again from 1733 until 1743. In 1718, Jean-Baptist Moyne de Bienville orders a French expedition in Louisiana. He founds the city of New Orleans, in homage to the
regent,
Philippe, Duc d'Orléans. It is the architect
Adrien de Pauger who draws the orthogonal plan of it (
French Quarter of New Orleans).
|
Map of the area that LeMoyne d'Iberville has explored. The Dash lines are the current states borders |
The
Treaty of Utrecht put an end to the
War of Spanish Succession. They devote the retreat of the French power. Even if Louis XIV succeeded in placing his grandson (
Philip V) on the Spanish throne, this one gives up its rights to the crown of France. Moreover,
Acadia and some of its West Indian colonies were lost. Louisiana remains French but worries about the increasing influence of the British colonies. The king seeks from now on to contain this influence in the east of the Appalachian Mountains. He attempts an alliance with New Spain, located west of Louisiana. This policy is justified by its family ties but also by the hope to reach the mines and the trade of the Spanish colonies. He continuous exploration of the west: in 1714,
Louis Juchereau de St. Denis navigated the
Red River and reached the
Rio Grande . The same year, Étienne Véniard de Bourgmont sails on the
Missouri River. The zone of French influence extends considerably and the voyages provide the foundations of the recognition of the
Far West .)
It was not easy for an
absolute monarchy to administer Louisiana, a territory several times larger than
Metropolitan France.
Louis XIV and his successors tried to impose their
absoluteist ambitions on the colony, often without giving the colonial administration enough financial means.
Absolutism in Louisiana?
 |
Jean-Baptiste Colbert. |
If the leaders of the
Ancien Régime took control and sometimes encourages the colonisation of
New France, it was for many different reasons.
The reign of
Henri IV gave an important impetuses to the colonisation of New France. Henri IV, the first bourbon king, was personally interested in foreign affairs. In the 17th century, ministers
Richelieu and later
Colbert advanced colonial politics. Louis XIV and his ministers were worried about the grandeur of the kingdom, over which they constantly competed with other European nations. European rivalry and a game of political alliances greatly marked the history of Louisiane, in direct and indirect ways. The desire to limit British influence in the
New World, however, was a constant in royal politics.
(the sun king takes care to limit the appearance of intermediate bodies and countervailing powers in North America. He does not want an
assembly of notables or
parliament. In
1685 , it prohibits the
imprimery in all of New France (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America française, p. 167.). In the years 1660, the colony is attached directly to the royal field. Between 1712 and 1731, the French possession passes under the control of
Antoine Crozat , a financial rich person, then under that of
Mississippi Company created by
John Law . This one must recruit emigrants to populate the colony. In 1731, Louisiana is replaced under the direct authority of king de France. Contrary to what occurs in metropolis, the laws are the same ones everywhere: it is it
habit of Paris which applies and this one is rather levelling for the time (J Meyer, J Tarrade, A. Rey-Goldzeiguer,
French history coloniale, p. 114-115.). The riots and the revolts against the authorities are rare. However, governmental centralization stumbled at the distances which separate France from Louisiana. To the end of the
17th century and to the beginning of the
18th century, the colonists of the Gulf of Mexico are almost delivered to themselves and must more count on the assistance of the Amerindians that on that of the metropolis. But the distance has also its advantages: the Louisianian colonists deliver themselves without problem to the traffics of smuggling.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert , minister for the navy and of the trade of Louis XIV, is attentive to increase the richnesses of the crown. He melts of the companies of trade, takes care to increase the production of the country and the colonies. It is necessary to sell as much as possible and reduce the imports, under the philosophy of
mercantilism]. It imposes the monopoly of France as regards trade. However, the ambitions absolutists carry in them a notable contradiction: Colbert wants to reduce the expenditure of monarchy. It is however necessary to invest much money and to mobilize important human resources to emphasize the colonies of America. Great work of economic infrastructures ([[ manufactures, ports) is undertaken in metropolis; but the investments and installations are insufficient in Louisiana. Nothing is really carried out to facilitate the movement of the goods or the men. In the same way, whereas the French budget is overdrawn because of the wars, the colonists of Louisiana do not pay a royal
tax and are free of
gabelle .
Colonial Administration
Under the ancien régime, French Louisiana formed part of a larger colonial unit, the French empire of America or New France, which included a part of current Canada. New France was initially directed by a viceroy: this station was occupied by the duke of Ventadour (
1625). It was then equipped with a general government like the other possessions of
the Bourbons. Its seat was in the city of
Québec until
1759. One
Governor general, assisted by one
intendant, was given the charge of directing this vast empire. In theory, Louisiana was thus subordinate to Canada. In addition, it was largely by Canadian colonists, rather than settlers directly from France, it was explored and populated. Given the enormous distance between New Orleans and Quebec, communications were limited between the urban centers and forts.
French settlements were widely dispersed, giving them a relative autonomy in fact, if not in law. It was decided to divide rule of the vast, diverse colony of New France into five governments, including Louisiana. The Country of Illinois, located at the south of the Great Lakes, was added to Louisiana in
1717. The first "capital" of French Louisiana was Mobile. The seat of government was transferred to Biloxi in
1720, then to New Orleans in
1722, where the governor resided. This individual was the most eminent character, but not most powerful. He commanded troops and was reponsible for diplomatic relations. The second authority was the police chief-director. His functions were similar with those of the
intendants in France: administrators and representatives of the king, their prerogatives extending to justice, the police force and finances. They managed the budget, set prices, chaired the higher council (the Court of Justice) and organized it
census. Named by the king, the ordnance officer of Louisiana had broad capacities which sometimes came into conflict with those of the governor. The military stations of the interior were directed by commanders.
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Saint-Louis cathedral, in the New-Orleans |
The French possessions of North America were under the authority of a single
diocese, whose seat was in Quebec. The
archbishop, named and remunerated by the king, was spiritual head of all New France. With loose religious supervision, religiosity of the population was very slackened; Louisianians tended to practice their faith much less than their counterparts in France and Canada. The tithe, a tax by the
clergy on the faithful, produced less revenue than in France. The Church nevertheless played an important part in the exploration of French Louisiana; it sent missions, primarily carried out by
Jesuits, to convert
Native Americans. It also founded schools and hospitals: by
1720, the
Ursulines were operating a hospital in New Orleans. The church and its missionaries establish contacts with the Amerindian tribes. Certain priests, such as the father Inlays with the
17th century, took part in the missions of exploration. For the purpose of converting the Amerindians, the Jesuits translated collections of prayers into numerous Amerindian languages. Living sometimes in the tribes, they could not prevent some
syncretism of ther practices and beliefs. Sincere and permanent conversions were limited in number; many who received missionary instruction tended to assimilate the
Trinity into their pantheon of "spirits", or rejected it outright.
It is difficult to evaluate the total population of France's colonies in North America. While historians have relatively precise sources with regard to the colonists and the slaves, it is on the other hand much more difficult to count the Amerindians. It should be noted that during the
18th century century, the Louisiana society became quite creolized.
Native Americans
According to the historian Russel Thorntorn, North America countained approximately seven million native inhabitants in
1500 (Russel Thorntorn,
American Indian Holocaust and Survival..., Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.) The population plummeted from the
16th century onward, primarily because of the diseases introduced by Europeans, against whom the Amerindians were not immunized. At the end of the
17th century, there were likely no more than 100,000 to 200,000 Native Americans in Basse-Louisiana (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, p. 201.) A small number of Amerindians were employed as slaves from the very start of the
18th century in spite of official prohibition. These slaves were captured by the tribes during raids and of battle. Sold to French colonists, they wer then often sent to
Saint Domingue in the West Indies or, at times, to Canada. In Louisiana, planters generally preferred using African slaves, though some had Amerindian servants.
African slaves
|
The Code noir, which was applied in Louisiana during the 18th century, and later with some modifications in the West Indies |
In
1717 French minister of finance
John Law decided to import black slaves into Louisiana. His objective was then to develop the economy of
plantations in Basse-Louisiane. The Company of the Indies held a monopoly of the slave trade in the area. It imported approximately 6,000 slaves (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, p. 242.) from Africa between
1719 and
1743. A portion of these were sent to the Illinois territory to cultivate the fields or to work the mines. The economy of Basse-Louisiane consequently became slave-dominated. As in other French colonies, the condition of the slaves was theoretically regulated by
Black Codes. However, these were actually not extensively applied, and the slaves often had a certain degree of autonomy. Initially, during public holidays, slaves were permitted to sell a portion of the crops they had cultivated. Then, some would drive out, cut wood or keep livestock, far from the plantation. Lastly, if the interracial marriages and the regroupings of slaves were prohibited, cohabitation and the keeping of mistresses were often practiced. The life and the work of the slaves were difficult, with harvest season undoubtedly the most painful. The maintenance of the channels involved much drudgery.
Slave residences were modest; slaves slept on simple straw mattresses. They typically had some trunks and kitchen utensils. The condition of the slaves depended on the treatment of their masters. When it was excessively cruel, the slaves often fled and hid in the marshes or in New Orleans. But the
maroon societies runaway slaves founded were often short-lived; Louisiana would not know maroon villages to the degree that the West Indies would. Meanwhile, slave revolts were not as frequent in this area as they were in the Caribbean. The possibilities of stamping were altogether rather reduced; the slaves could not purchase their freedom. Some freed slaves (notably women and former soldiers) formed a small community, which suffered from
segregation; justice was more severe in their opposition and they did not have right to possess weaponss. Slaves contributed to the
creolization of the Louisianian society. They brought from Africa
okra, a plant which is used in the preparation of
gumbo. While the Black Code required that the slaves receive a Christian education, many secretly practiced
animism and often combined elements of the two faiths.
Colonists
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Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, Louisiana governor in early 17th century |
It is estimated that 7,000 immigrants Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, French p. 205.) settled in Louisiana during the 18th century - a number 100 times lower than the number of British colonists on the Atlantic coast. Louisiana attracted considerably fewer French colonists than its West Indian colonies did. After the crossing of the
Atlantic Ocean, which lasted several months, the colonists took up several challenges. Their living conditions were difficult: uprooted, they had to face a new, often hostile, environment. Many of these travellers died during the maritime crossing or soon after their arrival.
Hurricanes, unknown in France, periodically struck the coast, destroying whole villages. The insalubrity of the Mississippi Delta, with periodic
yellow fever epidemics, represented another strong constraint. Moreover, French villages and forts were not necessarily safe from enemy offensives. Attacks by Amerindians represented a real threat on the groups of isolated colonists; in
1729, the attacks of
Natchez killed 250 in Basse-Louisiane (J Meyer, J Tarrade, A. Rey-Goldzeiguer, ' ' French history coloniale' ', p. 188.). Natchez forces seized Fort Rosalie (now
Natchez, Mississippi) by surprise, killing pregnant women (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, p. 303.) The French response occurred the following two years, causing the Natchez to flee or be
deported as slaves to
Saint Domingue.
Colonists were often young men, volunteers recruited in French ports or in Paris. Many served as
indentured servants, in which they were required to remain in Louisiana for a length of time fixed by the contract of service. During this time, they were "temporary semi-slaves" (J Meyer, J Tarrade, A. Rey-Goldzeiguer,
French Colonial History, p. 22.). To fix and increase the colonial population,
filles de la cassette, young Frenchwomen, were sent to the colony to marry soldiers there, given a
dowry financed by the king. Women of easy virtue, vagrants or outlaws, without a family, arrived with a
lettre de cachet were sent by force to Louisiana, especially during the
regency period early in the reign of
Louis XV. Their stories inspired the novel
Story of the Knight Of Grieux and Manon Lescaut, written by
Abbé Prévost in
1731. French Louisiana included communities of Swiss and German settlers; however, royal authorities never spoke about "Louisianian" but always of "French" to designate the population (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, p. 595.) After the
Seven Years' War, the settlement became more mixed, with the population enriched with the arrival of various groups: Spanish settlers, refugees from
Saint Domingue (particularly after
1791, opponents of the
French Revolution, and
Cajuns. In
1785, 1633 people of
Acadian origin were brought from France to New Orleans, 30 years after having been expelled from their homeland by the British. Other Acadians made it to the colony on their own; altogether, about 4,000 are thought to have settled in Louisiana.
Pesants, artisans, and merchants
Social mobility was easier in America than in France at the time. The
seigneurial system was not imposed on the banks of the Mississippi. There were few
corporations treated on a hierarchical basis and strictly regulated. Certain tradesmen managed to build fortunes rather quickly. The large planters of Louisiana were attached to the French way of life: they imported wigs and clothing fashionable in Paris. In the Country of Illinois, the wealthiest constructed set up stone-built houses and have several slaves. The largest traders wound up settling in New Orleans.
French soldiers
The king sent the army in the event of conflict with the other colonial powers; in 1717, the colony of Mississippi counted 300 soldiers out of 550 people (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of French America, p. 225.). However, the colonial army, like that of France, suffered from desertions. Certain soldiers fled to become
coureurs de bois. There were few
mutinies because repression was severe. The army held a fundamental place in the control of the territory. Soldiers built forts and frequently negotiated with the Amerindians.
Coureurs des bois
The
coureurs des bois (runners of the woods) played an important part, not well-documented, in the extension of French influence in North America. By the end of the
17th century, these adventurers had journeyed the length of the Mississippi River. They were motivated by the hope of finding gold or of carrying out a profitable fur trade with the Indians. The fur trade, often practiced without authorization, was a difficult activity, carried on most of the time by unmarried young men. Many ultimately wished to be reconverted into more sedentary agricultural activities. Meanwhile, a good number of them were integrated into native communities, learning the languages and took native wives. A well-known example is the French Canadian
Toussaint Charbonneau, husband to
Sacagawea, who gave birth to the Jean-Baptiste. They took part in the
Lewis and Clark expedition in
1804-
1806.
If France of Ancien Régime wishes to make Indians of the subjects of the king and good Christians, the distance of the metropolis and the weakness of the French settlement prevent the result of this objective. In official
rhetoric, the Amerindians are regarded as subjects of king de France. But actually, the autochtones keep an important autonomy related to their numerical superiority. The local authorities (governors, officers) do not have the means of imposing the decisions and often exploit the base of the compromise. The tribes offer an essential support for the French maintenance in Louisiana: they ensure the survival of the colonists, provide skins within the framework of the draft of the furs, are used as guide in forwardings... Their alliance is essential in the fight against the British. The two people influence themselves mutually in many fields: from the French the languages learn from the autochtones; Amerindians adopt the European goods (fabrics, cloths, alcohol, weapons with fire...) and their religion. The runners of wood and the soldiers borrow the boats of bark and the moccasins. Much of them eats à .la.mode Indian (wild rice, various meats, sometimes of the
bear and of the dog (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of America française, p. 348.). The colonists are often dependent on the Amerindians for their provisioning of food.
Creole cuisine is the heiress of these contacts: thus, the sagamity is a pulp of corn, grease of bear and bacon.
Jambalaya, word of
Seminole origin, indicates today a multitude of meat receipts containing rice, all very spiced. Sometimes
shamans succeed in curing the colonists thanks to traditional remedies (application of gum of fir tree on the wounds, osmund consumption on a bite of rattlesnake). Many colonists admire and fear the military value of the autochtones. But of others scorn their culture and regard them as lower than the White. With the 18th century, the interraciaux marriages without the approval of the authorities are prohibited in Louisiana (
ordinance of 1735). the priests Jesuits are often scandalized libertines of the Amerindians. In spite of some disagreements (the Indians kill the pigs which devastate the corn fields) and sometimes of the confrontations violent one (war of the Foxes, Natchez uprisings and forwardings against
Chicachas ), the relations with the Indians are relatively good in Louisiana, because the French are not numerous. The French imperialism is expressed by some wars and the setting in slavery of a certain number of Amerindians. But most of the time, the relations with Indians are based on the dialogue and the negotiation.
In this immense unit which is French Louisiana, it is advisable to distinguish two great areas with the well differentiated productive systems.
Illinois Country
This area of French Louisiana, located at north and drained by Mississippi and its affluents, produces primarily cereals. The French farmers, very few let us point out it, live in some grouped villages (
Fort de Chartres,
Kaskaskia ,
Prairie du Rocher, Sainte-Geneviève). They cultivate using a hand of?uvre paid and servile, corn and wheat. The meadows are development thanks to
plough the ] traditional one. They raise horses, bovines and pigs. In complement, they make push a little tobacco,
hemp , of
flax and vine (even if the essence of the wine is imported of France). Agriculture is subjected to the climatic risks and the overflows of Mississippi. The strengthened stations of draft of the Country of Illinois concentrate on the trade of the furs. Placed at strategic places, they are strengthened in a modest way. Some only are out of stone (Fort de Chartres, Fort Niagara). Like their American "
mountain man" counterparts, the
coureurs des bois exchange the skins of beaver or of
deer against weapons, parts of fabric or shoddy goods, because the local economy is based on
barter . They sell then the skins and the furs in the forts or the cities of News-France. The Illinois Country also produces salt,
lead and dispatches towards New Orleans of game.
Basse-Louisiane
Plantation economy
The south of Louisiana is exploited according to the system of the slave plantation. The owners generally reside at New Orleans and entrust the direction of the field to a treasurer. The cultures are varied and adapted to the natural conditions: a part of the productions is intended to nourish the inhabitants of Louisiana (corn, vegetables, rice, breeding). Another part is exported towards France (
tobacco and
indigo ).
Economic role of New Orleans
New Orleans is the economic capital of French Louisiana, even if it is only one simple village during several decades. The colonists arranged infrastructures allowing the trade: a channel is bored since 1723. The stores are used as warehouses on banks of the Mississippi. The city exports the skins coming from the interior as well as the products of plantation. It is also used as local market. Its shops and its markets allow the sale of products of the plantations. The rare convoys coming from France bring food (bacon, corn...), alcohols and various objects (weapons, tools, fabrics, clothing). Interior come from the skins and various products of hunting. The port dispatches tobacco and indigo towards the metropolis. But these exports remain on the whole relatively weak. New Orleans still sells wood, rice and corn in the French West Indies.
The Seven Years' War and its consequences
New-Orleans is the economic capital of French Louisiana, even if it is only one simple village during several decades. The colonists arranged infrastructures allowing the trade: a channel is bored since 1723. The stores are used as warehouses on banks of Mississippi. The city exports the skins coming from the interior as well as the products of plantation. It is also used as local market. Its shops and its markets allow the sale of products of the plantations. The rare convoys coming from France bring food (such as
bacon and
corn), alcoholic beverages and various objects (weapons, tools, fabrics, clothing). Interior come from the skins and various products of hunting. The port dispatches tobacco and indigo towards the metropolis. But these exports remain on the whole relatively weak. New Orleans still sells wood, rice and corn in the French West Indies.
The ephemeral renewal of French Louisiane
During
French revolution , Louisiana under Spanish control is agitated: certain French-speaking colonists send petitions in metropolis and the slaves try to revolt in
1791 and
1795. The
Treaty of San Ildefonso , signed in secrecy on
October 1,
1800 , envisages the transfer of Western Louisiana as well as New Orleans in France in exchange of the duchy of
Parma . However,
Napoléon Bonaparte decides not to keep this immense territory. Dictated by political realism and the rupture of the
Treaty of Amiens with the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Ireland linked themselves to become the United Kingdom in 1801), the decision is made to sell Louisiana to the young people the United States it
April 30,
1803 for the sum of 80 million francs (15 million dollars). American sovereignty was established on
December 20 , 1803 (
see Louisiana Purchase ).
French colonization in Louisiana left a cultural inheritance which has been celebrated significantly in recent decades. The heritage of the
French language and of
Cajun French is that which has been most threatenedd; for this reason, the
CODOFIL (Council for the Development of French in Louisiana) was created in
1968. A subject of debate is the dialect of French that should be taught: that of France,
Canadian French, standard Louisiana French or Cajun French. Today, many Cajun-dominated areas of Louisiana have formed associations with
Acadian communities of Canada, which send French professors to re-teach the language in the schools. In 2003, 7% of Louisianians (Havard G, Vidal C,
History of America française, p. 729.) are French-speaking, even if they also speak English. An estimated 25% of the state's population has some French ancestry, carrying a number of names of French origin (e.g., LeBlanc, Cordier, Dion, Menard, Pineaux, Roubideaux).
Many cities or villages have names of French origin. (See
French in the United States for a list of these.) These include
St. Louis,
Detroit,
Baton Rouge,
New Orleans, and
Mobile. The the flag and the seal of the state of
Minnesota carry a French legend. Historical festivals and commemorations point out the French presence of the modern time: in
1999, Louisiana celebrated the 300th anniversary of its foundation; in
2001, Detroit did the same. In
2003, the 200th anniversary of the
Louisiana Purchase was commemorated on numerous occasions [ http://www.louisiane.culture.fr/fr/index2.html "French Louisiana" ] as well as by a formal conference to recall its history. Certain places testify to a cultural inheritance left by the French; a prime example is the
French Quarter of New Orleans. Many French forts have been rebuilt and opened to visitors.
A key part of Louisianian culture finds its roots in the French period: creole songs influenced
the blues and
jazz. Cajun music, often sung in French, remains very much alive today. New Orleans'
Carnival, with its height at
Mardi Gras, testifies to a long-lived Roman Catholic tradition.
*
New France*
New Orleans*
British colonization of the Americas*
Louisiana PurchaseFrench
* Michaël Garnier, Bonaparte et la Louisiane, Kronos/SPM, Paris, 1992, 247 p. ISBN 2-901952-04-6 ;
* Marcel Giraud, Histoire de la Louisiane française (1698-1723), Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1953-1974, 4 tomes ;
* Réginald Hamel, La Louisiane créole politique, littéraire et sociale (1762-1900), Leméac,coll. « Francophonie vivante », Ottawa, 1984, 2 tomes ISBN 2-7609-3914-6 ;
* Gilles Havard, Cécile Vidal, Histoire de l'Amérique française, Flammarion, coll. « Champs », Paris, 2 éd. (1 éd. 2003), 2006, 863 p. ISBN 2-08-080121-X ;
* Philippe Jacquin, Les Indiens blancs : Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord (XVI - XVIII siècles), Payot, coll. « Bibliothèque historique », Paris, 1987, 310 p. ISBN 2-228-14230-1 ;
* Gilles-Antoine Langlois, Des villes pour la Louisiane française : Théorie et pratique de l'urbanistique coloniale au siècle, L'Harmattan, coll. « Villes et entreprises », Paris, 2003, 448 p. ISBN 2-7475-4726-4 ;
* Thierry Lefrançois (dir.), La Traite de la Fourrure : Les Français et la découverte de l'Amérique du Nord, Musée du Nouveau Monde, La Rochelle et L'Albaron, Thonon-les-Bains, 1992, 172 p. ISBN 2-908528-36-3 ;
* Bernard Lugan, Histoire de la Louisiane française (1682-1804), Perrin, Paris, 1994, 273 p. ISBN 2-7028-2462-5 2-262-00094-8 ;
* Jean Meyer, Jean Tarrade, Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, Histoire de la France coloniale, t. 1, A. Colin, coll. « Histoires Colin », Paris, 1991, 846 p. ISBN 2-20037218-3.
;English
* Charles J. Balesi, The Time of the French in the Heart of North America (1673-1818), Alliance française de Chicago, Chicago, 2 éd. (1 éd. 1992), 1996, 348 p. ISBN|1-88137-000-3 ;
* Glenn R. Conrad (dir.), The French Experience in Louisiana, University of Southwestern Louisiana Press, La Fayette, 1995, VIII-666 p. ISBN 0940984970 ;
* Marcel Giraud, A History of French Louisiana (1723-1731), tome 5, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1991 ;
* Charles R. Goins, J. M. Calwell, Historical Atlas of Louisiana, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman / Londres, 1995, XV-99-L p. ISBN 0-8061-2682-5 2-8061-2589-6 ;
* V. Hubert, A Pictorial History, Louisiana, Ch. Scribner, New York, 1975 ;
* Robert W. Neuman, An Introduction of Louisiana Archeology, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge/ Londres, 1984, XVI-366 p. ISBN 0807111473.*
Site du ministère de la culture française: La Louisiane française (1682-1803)*
Bibliothèque Nationale de France: La France en Amérique*
Archives Canada-France: Nouvelle-France. Histoire d'une terre française en Amérique*
Site personnel de Jean-Pierre Pazzoni: Histoire de la Louisiane française*
Site de l'association France-Louisiane: Louisiane française. Entretien avec Bernard Lugan*
Hérodote: 9 avril 1682, Cavelier de la Salle baptise la Louisiane*
University of Laval: 30 avril 1803 : traité d'achat de la Louisiane*
Museum of the State of Louisiana*
Fort Rosalie, Mississippi*
New France: 1524-1763*
Why New France ended up as it did â€" under-populated and swallowed by the English.
*
History of New Orleans
