Madagascar
This article is about the African nation. For the 2005 animated film, see Madagascar (film), and for the ship that went missing in 1853, see Madagascar (ship). Madagascar, officially the
Republic of Madagascar, is an
island nation in the
Indian Ocean, off the eastern coast of
Africa. The main island, also called Madagascar, is the
fourth largest island in the world. It is the home of five percent of the world's
plant and
animal species, 80 percent of which are unique to Madagascar. Among its most notable examples of
biodiversity are the
lemur infraorder of
primates, three
endemic bird
families and six endemic
baobab species. The adjective (language, ethnicity and citizenship) derived from Madagascar is
Malagasy (pronounced "mal-gazh"). The primary language spoken in Madagascar is
Malagasy.
Archeologists place the first arrival of humans on the island to the years between 200 and 500 C.E., when seafarers from southeast Asia, probably
Kalimantan or the southern
Sulawesi, arrived after crossing thousands of miles of open ocean in their outrigger canoes. The feat represented the western-most branch of the great
Austronesian expansion.
The written history of Madagascar began in the 7th century, when
Arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast. European contact began in the 1500s, when
Portuguese sea captain
Diego Dias sighted the island after his ship became separated from a fleet going to
India. In the late 17th century, the
French established trading posts along the east coast. From about 1774 to 1824, it was a favourite haunt for
pirates, including
Americans, one of whom brought
Malagasy rice to
South Carolina.
During the
Middle Ages, the chiefs of the different settlements on the island began to extend their power through trade with Madagascar's Indian Ocean neighbors, notably North Africa, the Middle-east and India. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the
Sakalava chiefdoms of the
Menabe, centered in what is now the town of
Morondava, and of
Boina, centered in what is now the provincial capital of
Mahajanga (
Majunga). The influence of the
Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of
Antsiranana,
Mahajanga and
Toliara. But with the domination of the Indian Ocean by the British fleet and the end of the
Arab slave trade, the
Sakalava would lose their power to the emerging
Merina threat. For a short time the Betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified, but this unification was short-lived.
Beginning in the 1790s,
Merina rulers succeeded in establishing
hegemony over the major part of the island, including the coast. In 1817, the Merina ruler and the
British governor of
Mauritius concluded a
treaty abolishing the
slave trade, which had been important in Madagascar's economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to
Presbyterianism,
Congregationalism, and
Anglicanism.
France invaded Madagascar in
1883 in what became known as the first
Franco-Hova War (
Hova being the name of the Merina aristocrats), eeking to restore property that had been confiscated from French citizens. At the war's end, Madagascar ceded
Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000
gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. The British accepted the imposition of a French
protectorate over Madagascar in 1885 in return for eventual control over
Zanzibar (now part of
Tanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area.
In Europe, meanwhile, diplomats partitioning the Africa continent worked out an agreement whereby Britain, to obtain the Sultanate of
Zanzibar, ceded its share of
Heligoland to
Germany and renounced all claims to Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled doom for Madagascar. Prime Minister Rainilaiarivory had succeeded in playing England and France against one another, but now France could meddle without fear of reprisals from England. In
1895, a French flying column landed in
Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched to the capital,
Antananarivo, where the city's defenders were taken by surprise, as they were expecting an attack from the much closer east coast. Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of
malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended.
Absolute French control over Madagascar was established by military force in 1895-1896, and in 1896, the
French Parliament voted to
annex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile in
Algeria. In December 1904, the Russian
Baltic Fleet stopped at
Diego Suarez for coal and provisions before sailing on to its doomed encounter with the Japanese Fleet in the
Battle of Tsushima. Before leaving port the Russian sailors were required to put ashore the animals they had acquired, including
monkeys,
boa constrictors and one
crocodile.
|
An 1888 map of Madagascar |
During
World War II, Malagasy troops fought in
France,
Morocco, and
Syria. Immediately preceding the fall of France,
Germany initiated planning to forcibly deport all of Europe's
Jews to Madagascar in what was known as the
Madagascar Plan. Action on the plan was never begun. After France fell to Germany, the
Vichy government administered Madagascar. British troops occupied the strategic island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the
Japanese. The
Free French received the island from the
United Kingdom in 1943.
In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, a
nationalist uprising was suppressed after several months of bitter fighting with 100,000 persons killed and this after Malagasy troops had to fight for France during the World War II. The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (
Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on
October 14,
1958, as an
autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a
constitution in 1959 and full
independence on
June 26,
1960.
Madagascar's first President,
Philibert Tsiranana, was elected when his
Social Democratic Party gained power at independence in 1960 and was reelected without opposition in March 1972. However, he resigned only 2 months later in response to massive
antigovernment demonstrations. The unrest continued, and Tsiranana's successor, Gen.
Gabriel Ramanantsoa, resigned on
February 5,
1975, handing over executive power to Lt. Col.
Richard Ratsimandrava, who was assassinated 6 days later. A provisional military directorate then ruled until a new government was formed in June 1975, under
Didier Ratsiraka.
During the 16 subsequent years of President Ratsiraka's rule, Madagascar continued under a government committed to revolutionary
socialism based on the 1975 Constitution establishing a highly
centralized state. During this period a strategy of
nationalization of private enterprises, centralization of the economy and "Malgasization" of the education system crippled the economy, leaving traces even today of a highly centralized economic system and a high level of
illiteracy. National elections in 1982 and 1989 returned Ratsiraka for a second and third 7-year presidential term. For much of this period, only limited and restrained political opposition was tolerated, with no direct criticism of the president permitted in the press.
With an easing of restrictions on political expression, beginning in the late 1980s, the Ratsiraka regime came under increasing pressure to make fundamental changes. In response to a deteriorating economy, Ratsiraka relaxed socialist economic policies and instituted some
liberal, private-sector reforms. These, along with political reforms like the elimination of
press censorship in 1989 and the formation of more political parties in 1990, were insufficient to placate a growing opposition movement known as
Hery Velona ("Active Forces"). A number of already existing political parties and their leaders, among them
Albert Zafy and
Rakotoniaina Manandafy, anchored this movement which was especially strong in
Antananarivo and the surrounding high plateau.
In response to largely peaceful mass demonstrations and crippling general strikes, Ratsiraka replaced his prime minister in August 1991 but suffered an irreparable setback soon thereafter when his troops fired on peaceful demonstrators marching on
Iavoloha, the suburban presidential palace, killing more than 30.
In an increasingly weakened position, Ratsiraka acceded to negotiations on the formation of a
transitional government. The resulting "
Panorama Convention" of
October 31,
1991, stripped Ratsiraka of nearly all of his powers, created interim institutions, and set an 18-month timetable for completing a transition to a new form of constitutional government. The
High Constitutional Court was retained as the ultimate judicial arbiter of the process.
In March 1992, a widely representative
National Forum organized by the
FFKM (Malagasy Christian Council of Churches) drafted a new Constitution. Troops guarding the proceedings clashed with pro-Ratsiraka "
federalists" who tried to disrupt the forum in protest of draft constitutional provisions preventing the incumbent president from running again. The text of the new Constitution was put to a nationwide referendum in August 1992 and approved by a wide margin, despite efforts by federalists to disrupt
balloting in several coastal areas.
Presidential elections were held on
November 25,
1992, after the High Constitutional Court had ruled, over Hery Velona objections, that Ratsiraka could become a candidate. Runoff elections were held in February 1993, and the leader of the Hery Velona movement, Albert Zafy, defeated Ratsiraka. Zafy was sworn in as President on
March 27,
1993. After President Zafy's impeachment by the National Assembly in 1996 and the short quasi-presidency of
Norbert Ratsirahonana, the 1997 elections once again pitted Zafy and Ratsiraka, with Ratsiraka this time emerging victorious. A National Assembly dominated by members of President Ratsiraka'a political party
AREMA subsequently passed the 1998 Constitution, which considerably strengthened the presidency.
In December 2001, a presidential election was held in which both major candidates claimed victory. The Ministry of the Interior declared incumbent Ratsiraka of the AREMA party victorious.
Marc Ravalomanana contested the results and claimed victory. A political crisis followed in which Ratsiraka supporters cut major transport routes from the primary port city to the capital city, a stronghold of Ravalomanana support. Sporadic violence and considerable economic disruption continued until July 2002 when Ratsiraka and several of his prominent supporters fled to
exile in
France. In addition to political differences, ethnic differences played a role in the crisis and continue to play a role in politics. Ratsiraka is from the coastal
Betsimisaraka tribe and Ravalomanana comes from the highland
Merina tribe.
After the end of the 2002 political crisis, President Ravalomanana began many reform projects, forcefully advocating "rapid and durable development" and the launching of a battle against corruption. December 2002 legislative elections gave his newly formed
TIM (Tiako-I-Madagasikara) (I Love Madagascar) Party a commanding majority in the National Assembly. November 2003 municipal elections were conducted freely, returning a majority of supporters of the president, but also significant numbers of independent and regional opposition figures.
Following the crisis of 2002, the President replaced provincial governors with appointed PDSs (
Presidents des Delegations Speciales). Subsequent legislation established a structure of 22 regions to decentralize administration. In September 2004, the Government named 22 Regional Chiefs, reporting directly to the President, to implement its decentralization plans. Financing and specific powers for the regional administrations remain to be clarified.
Government
In March 1998, Malagasy voters approved a revised constitution. The principal institutions of the Republic of Madagascar are a
presidency, a
parliament (
National Assembly and
Senate), a prime ministry and cabinet, and an independent
judiciary. The president is elected by direct
universal suffrage for a 5-year term, renewable twice.
The National Assembly consists of 160 representatives elected by direct
vote every 5 years. The last election was held in December 2002. The Senate consists of 90 senators, two-thirds elected by local legislators and other Grand Electors and one-third appointed by the president, all for 6-year terms. A prime minister and council of ministers carries out day-to-day management of government. The president appoints the
prime minister.
The prime minister and members of Parliament initiate
legislation, and the government executes it. The president can dissolve the National Assembly. For its part, the National Assembly can pass a motion of
censure and require the prime minister and council of ministers to step down. The Constitutional Court approves the constitutionality of new laws. Madagascar is also part of the
Indian Ocean Commission.
The constitution of 1992 ruled that the country should be decentralized into territorial entities. The name, number, and limits of territorial entities should be determined by law. The law passed by the national assembly in 1994 defined three such entity levels:
region (
faritra),
department (
departemanta) and
commune (
kaominina). The communes were created in 1996.
With
Didier Ratsiraka back in power, the constitution was changed in 1998, to include and specifically mention six autonomous provinces, divided into undefined regions and communes. The autonomous provinces, having the same names and territories as the already existing provinces, were created in 2000.
During the power struggle after the presidential elections in 2001, five of those provinces, whose governors supported Ratsiraka, declared themselves independent from the republic. The new president, Ravalomanana, replaced the provincial governments by special delegations, appointed by the president. This effectively means that the autonomous provinces have ceased to exist as such, although it remains unclear whether they will remain in place.
In 2004, the regions were finally created by the national assembly in law no. 2004-001. Meanwhile the 28 regions originally proposed had become 22. Although they are subdivisions of the provinces, they are representatives (and representing the people) of the republic, not the province. The regions will also take over the assets of the "ex-Fivondronampokontany". It is also mentioned that the communes are the only entities that are operational, and there will be an unspecified period of transition to the new system. The departments are not mentioned in the law, instead the designation "components" of the regions is used. It appears that the departments will be based on the
Fivondronampokontany, although it is unclear whether they are already in place and what it means that the assets will be taken over by the regions.
Provinces and regions
Madagascar is divided into six autonomous
provinces (
faritany mizakatena), which in turn are divided into 22 regions:
|
Map of Madagascar. Nosy means island in the Malagasy language. |
The east coast of Madagascar has lowlands leading to steep bluffs and central highlands. The
Tsaratanana Massif in the north has
volcanic mountains. The west coast has many protected harbors and broad
plains, while the southwest is a
plateau and
desert region.
There are two seasons: it is hot and rainy from November to April, and cooler and dry from May to October. Southeastern
trade winds dominate, and there are occasional
cyclones.
Madagascar's long isolation from the neighboring continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals, many found nowhere else in the world; some ecologists refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent".
The eastern, or windward side of the island is home to
tropical rainforests, while the western and southern sides of the island, which lie in the
rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to
tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and
deserts and xeric shrublands. Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been preserved generally better than the eastern rainforests or the high central
plateau, presumably due to historically less population density and scarcity of water. There has been some
slash-and-burn activity in the eastern and western dry forests as well as the central high plateau, reducing certain forest
habitat and applying pressure to some
endangered species. Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by
shifting cultivators to create short term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow periods, the
nutrient poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. The resulting increased
surface runoff from burned lands has caused significant erosion and resulting high sedimentation to western rivers.
Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the
World Bank. An initial privatization program (1988-1993) and the development of an
export processing zone (EPZ) regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991-96 was followed by 5 years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment, driven by a second wave of privatizations and EPZ development. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak and perceived
corruption in Madagascar was extremely high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 through 2001,
poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002.
Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of
foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar's budding reputation as an
AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. Following resolution of the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003.
Currency depreciation and rising
inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3 percent, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy (the "Taux Directeur", or central bank rate, was raised to 16% and reserve requirements for banks tightened), and growth will reach around 6.5% in 2005.
Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with
international financial institutions and the donor community. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a "Friends of Madagascar" conference organized by the
World Bank in
Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified
road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.
In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the
IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the
World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.
The
Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in Madagascar in 2002. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organizations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.
The government of President Ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods
TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Some recent concerns have arisen about the confict of interest between the policies pursued by President and the activities his firms, most notably with preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 responding to a production shortfall in the country.
Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism; textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs); agricultural products (the country is the world's leading producer of
vanilla, accounting for about half the world's export market); and mining. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, consist the most part of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under
AGOA and the European markets under the
Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low volume high value products like vanilla, litchies and essential oils. Mining investment is beginning to take off following the introduction of a new law opening the country up to foreign mining companies. A large mining investment by Rio Tinto in the Fort Dauphin region, to exploit ilmenite (titanium dioxide), is expected by late 2005, and other projects in ilmenite (Ticor/Kumba in Tulear) and nickel (Dynatec/Implats near Tamatave) could also be launched in the coming months.
Madagascar, which has historically been perceived as on the margin of mainstream African affairs, eagerly rejoined the
African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. From 1978 until 1991, then-President Ratsiraka emphasized independence and nonalignment and followed an "all points" policy stressing ties with socialist and radical regimes, including
North Korea,
Cuba,
Libya, and
Iran. Taking office in 1993, President
Albert Zafy expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with
South Korea and sent emissaries to
Morocco.
Starting in 1997,
globalization encouraged the government and President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets. External relations reflect this trend, although Madagascar's physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its
East African neighbors. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its
Indian Ocean neighbors --
Mauritius,
Réunion, and
Comoros. Active relationships with
Europe, especially
France,
Germany, and
Switzerland, as well as with
Britain,
Russia,
Japan,
India, and
China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the
Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Madagascar is also a member of the
International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the
US-military (as covered under
Article 98).President Ravalomanana has stated that he welcomes relations with all countries interested in helping Madagascar to develop. He has consciously sought to strengthen relations with
Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence.
Madagascar's population is predominantly of mixed
Asian and
African origin, though those who are visibly Asian in appearance and culture are the minority, found in the highland regions. Recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until
Malay seafarers arrived between about 2,000 to 1,500 years ago. Recent
DNA research shows that the Malagasy are approximately of half Malay and half East African stock, although some
Arab,
Indian and
European influence is present along the coast. The Malagasy language shares some 90% of its basic vocabulary with the
Maanyan language from the region of the Barito River in southern
Borneo.
Subsequent
migrations from both the Pacific and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, and 36 separate tribal groups emerged. Asian features are most predominant in the
Merina (3 million) ; the coastal people (called
côtiers) are of more clearly African origin.
The largest coastal groups are the
Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the
Tsimihety and
Sakalava (700,000 each).
The
Malagasy language is of
Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island.
French is spoken among the educated population of this former French colony.
English is becoming more widely spoken and in 2003 the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of English into the
primary grades of 44 schools, with hopes of taking the project nationwide. Many
Peace Corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers.
In the first Constitution of Madagascar (1960), Malagasy and French were named the "official languages of the republic". In the current Constitution, there is no official language mentioned, instead Malagasy is named the "national language". In a case where a citizen had claimed unconstitutional the publication of official documents in the French language only, The High Constitutional Court has observed in its decision
[Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 [1]] that, in the absence of a language law, French still has the character of an official language.
Religion
Approximately half of the country's population practices traditional religions, which tend to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. They believe that the dead join their
ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. The Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of
famadihana, or "turning over the dead" celebrate this spiritual communion. In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor.
About 45% of the Malagasy are
Christian, divided almost evenly between
Catholics and
Protestants. Many incorporate the
cult of the dead with their religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana. The
Roman Catholic church is open to its members continuing these practices, while more conservative protestant denominations tend to condemn them to be
superstitions or demon worship that should be abandoned. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches (FFKM) comprised of the four oldest and most prominent christian denominations (
Roman Catholic,
Reformed Protestant,
Lutheran and
Anglican). In the coastal regions of the provinces of
Mahajanga and
Antsiranana (Diego Suarez),
Muslims constitute a significant minority. Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity,
Indo-Pakistanis, and
Comorians.
*
Music of Madagascar*
List of writers from MadagascarSalegy is a popular music form. There is a sudden interest in American culture and European popular culture, which is eroding the more traditional culture, and especially the music.
*The Malagasy economy took a brief downturn during the 1980s when
Coca-Cola, the world's leading purchaser of vanilla, switched to the
New Coke formula that contained synthetic
vanillin. The situation reversed itself when the company reintroduced its classic formula.
*According to the latest census data, the majority of Malagasy citizens (about 52%) practice indigenous religious beliefs rather than
world religions.
* Matthew E. Hules, et al (2005). The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages.
American Journal of Human Genetics, 76:894-901, 2005. *
CIA World Factbook [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html]
*
US State Department [
2]
*
Communications in Madagascar*
Foreign relations of Madagascar*
Military of Madagascar*
Transportation in Madagascar*
Firaisan'ny Skotisma eto MadagasikaraEcology
*
Photographs of Madagascar wildlifeGovernment
*
Embassy of Madagascar in Canada government information and links
*
Embassy of Madagascar in Washington DC*
National Assembly of Madagascar official site
*
The Malagasy Government official site
News
*
allAfrica.com - Madagascar news headline links
Overviews
*
BBC News Country Profile - Madagascar* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html CIA World Factbook -
Madagascar]
*
Library of Congress - Country Study: Madagascar data as of August 1994
Directories
*
Open Directory Project - Madagascar directory category
*
Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Madagascar directory category
*
The Index on Africa - Madagascar directory category
*
University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Madagascar directory category
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Yahoo! - Madagascar directory category
Tourism
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Photos of Madagascar by region*
Photos*
Lonely Planet - Madagascar tourist guide
*
National Parks and ReservesOther links
*
Consulate of Madagascar counsular mission to Hungary
