Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault (
October 15,
1926 –
June 25,
1984) was a
French philosopher who held a chair at the
Collège de France, which he gave the title "The History of Systems of Thought." His writings have had an enormous impact on other scholarly work: Foucault's influence extends across the
humanities and
social sciences, and across many applied and
professional areas of study.
Foucault is known for his critical studies of various
social institutions, most notably
psychiatry,
medicine, and the
prison system, and also for his work on the history of
sexuality. His work concerning
power and the relation between power and
knowledge, as well as his ideas concerning "
discourse" in relation to the
history of Western thought, have been widely discussed and applied.
His work is often described as
postmodernist or
post-structuralist by commentators and critics. During the 1960s, however, he was more often associated with the
structuralist movement. Although he was initially happy with this description, he later emphasised his distance from the structuralist approach. He also rejected the post-structuralist and postmodernist labels in an interview with Gerard Raulet.
Early life
Foucault was born in 1926 in
Poitiers as Paul-Michel Foucault to a notable provincial family. His father, Paul Foucault, was an eminent
surgeon and hoped his son would join him in the profession. Foucault later dropped 'Paul' from his name for reasons that are not entirely clear. His early education was a mix of success and mediocrity until he attended the
Jesuit Collège Saint-Stanislaus where he excelled. During this period, Poitiers was part of
Vichy France and later came under German occupation. After
World War II, Foucault gained entry to the prestigious
École Normale Supérieure (rue d'Ulm), the traditional gateway to an academic career in the humanities in
France.
The École Normale Supérieure
Foucault's personal life during the École Normale was difficult—he suffered from
acute depression, even attempting
suicide. He was taken to see a psychiatrist. Perhaps because of this or in spite of it, Foucault became fascinated with
psychology. Thus, in addition to his
licence (degree) in philosophy he also earned a
licence in psychology, which was at that time a very new qualification in France, and was involved in the clinical arm of the discipline where he was exposed to thinkers such as
Ludwig Binswanger.
Like many
'normaliens' , Foucault joined the
French Communist Party from 1950 to 1953. He was inducted into the party by his mentor
Louis Althusser. He left due to concerns about what was happening in the
Soviet Union under
Stalin. Various people such as historian
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie have reported that Foucault never actively participated in his cell, unlike many other party members.
Early career
Foucault passed his
agrégation in 1950. After a brief period lecturing at the École Normale, he took up a position at the
University of Lille, where from 1953 to 1954 he taught psychology. In 1954 Foucault published his first book,
Maladie mentale et personnalité, a work which he would later disavow. It soon became apparent that Foucault was not interested in a teaching career, and he undertook a lengthy exile from France. In 1954 Foucault served France as a cultural delegate to the
University of Uppsala in
Sweden (a position arranged for him by
Georges Dumézil, who was to become a friend and mentor). In 1958 Foucault left
Uppsala for briefly held positions at
Warsaw University and at the
University of Hamburg.
Foucault returned to
France in 1960 to complete his doctorate and take up a post in
philosophy at the
University of Clermont-Ferrand. There he met
Daniel Defert, with whom he lived in a non-monogamous partnership for the rest of his life. In 1961 he earned his doctorate by submitting two theses (as is customary in France): a "major" thesis entitled
Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique and a 'secondary' thesis which involved a translation and commentary on
Kant's
Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View.
Folie et déraison (ironically published in English as
Madness and Civilization) was extremely well-received. Foucault continued a vigorous publishing schedule. In 1963 he published
Naissance de la Clinique (
Birth of the Clinic),
Raymond Roussel, and a reissue of his 1954 volume (now entitled
Maladie mentale et psychologie) which he would again disavow.
After Defert was posted to
Tunisia for his
military service, Foucault moved to a position at the
University of Tunis in 1965. In 1966 he published
Les Mots et les choses (
The Order of Things), which was enormously popular despite its length and difficulty. This was during the height of interest in
structuralism and Foucault was quickly grouped with scholars such as
Jacques Lacan,
Claude Lévi-Strauss, and
Roland Barthes as the newest, latest wave of thinkers set to topple the
existentialism popularized by
Jean-Paul Sartre. Foucault made a number of sceptical comments about Marxism, which outraged a number of Left wing critics, but he quickly tired of being labelled a 'structuralist'. He was still in
Tunis during the
May 1968 student rebellions, where he was profoundly affected by a local student revolt earlier in the same year. In the fall of 1968 he returned to France, where he published
L'archéologie du savoir (
The Archaeology of Knowledge) — a methodological response to his critics — in 1969.
Post-1968: Foucault the activist
In the aftermath of 1968, the French government created a new experimental university at
Vincennes. Foucault became the first head of its philosophy department in December of that year and appointed mostly young leftist academics (such as
Judith Miller) whose radicalism provoked the Ministry of Education to withdraw the department's accreditation. Foucault notoriously also joined students in occupying administration buildings and fighting with police.
Foucault's tenure at Vincennes was short-lived, as in 1970 he was elected to France's most prestigious academic body, the
Collège de France as Professor of the History of Systems of Thought. His political involvement now increased, Defert having joined the ultra-
Maoist Gauche Proletarienne (GP). Foucault helped found the
Prison Information Group (in French: Groupe d'Information sur les Prisons, (or GIP) to provide a way for
prisoners to voice their concerns. This fed into a marked politicization of Foucault's work, with a book,
Surveiller et Punir (
Discipline and Punish), which "narrates" the micro-power structures that developed in Western societies since the
eighteenth century, with a special focus on
prisons and
schools.
The late Foucault
In the late 1970s political activism in France tailed off with the disillusionment of many left wing militants. A number of young Maoists abandoned their beliefs to become the so-called
New Philosophers, often citing Foucault as their major influence, a status about which Foucault had mixed feelings. Foucault in this period embarked on a 6 volume project
History of Sexuality, which he was never to complete. Its first volume,
The Will to Knowledge, was published in 1976. The second and third volumes did not appear for another eight years, and they surprised readers by their relatively traditional style, subject matter (classical Greek and Latin texts) and approach, particularly Foucault's focus on the subject, a concept he had previously neglected.
Foucault began to spend more time in the
United States, at
University at Buffalo (where he had lectured on his first ever visit to the
United States in 1970) and especially at
UC Berkeley. In 1975 he took
LSD at
Zabriskie Point in
Death Valley National Park, later calling it the best experience of his life. In 1978 Foucault made two tours of
Iran, undertaking extensive interviews with political protagonists in support of the new revolutionary Islamic government there. His many essays on Iran were published in the Italian newspaper
Corriere Della Sera, only appeared in French in 1994 and in then in English in 2005. These essays caused some controversy, with some commentators arguing that Foucault was insufficiently critical of the new regime.
In the
San Francisco of the 70s and early 80s, Foucault participated in the subcultures of
anonymous gay sex and
sadomasochism â€" it is suspected that it was there that he contracted
HIV, in the days before the
disease was described as such.
It is unknown to what extent Foucault understood the cause of the disease or its transmission, but some biographers and critics have described his sex life at this time as the practical exploration of his ideas about normality and abnormality, and of the link between pleasure and death. Daniel Defert stated "When he went to San Francisco for the last time, he took it as a
limit-experience."
Foucault died of an
AIDS-related illness in
Paris June 26th, 1984.
Madness and Civilization
The English edition of
Madness and Civilization is an abridged version of
Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique, originally published in 1961. (A full translation titled
The History of Madness is due to be published by
Routledge : ISBN 0415277019) This was Foucault's first major book, written while he was the Director of the Maison de France in Sweden. It examines ideas, practices, institutions, art and literature relating to
madness in Western history.
Foucault begins his history in the
Middle Ages, noting the social and physical exclusion of
lepers. He argues that with the gradual disappearance of leprosy, madness came to occupy this excluded position. The
ship of fools in the 15th century is a literary version of one such exclusionary practice, the practice of sending mad people away in ships. In 17th century Europe, in a movement which Foucault famously describes as the Great Confinement, "unreasonable" members of the population were locked away and institutionalised. In the eighteenth century, madness came to be seen as the obverse of Reason, and, finally, in the nineteenth century as
mental illness.
Foucault also argues that madness lost its power to signify the limits of social order and to point to the truth and was silenced by Reason. He examines the rise of scientific and "humanitarian" treatments of the insane, notably at the hands of
Philippe Pinel and
Samuel Tuke. He claims that these new treatments were in fact no less controlling than previous methods. Tuke's country retreat for the mad consisted of punishing the madmen until they learned to act "reasonably". Similarly, Pinel's treatment of the mad amounted to an extended
aversion therapy, including such treatments as freezing showers and use of a straitjacket. In Foucault's view, this treatment amounted to repeated brutality until the pattern of judgment and punishment was
internalized by the patient.
The Birth of the Clinic
Foucault's second major book,
The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (
Naissance de la clinique: une archéologie du regard médical in French) was published in 1963 in France, and translated to English in 1973. Picking up from
Madness and Civilization,
The Birth of the Clinic traces the development of the medical profession, and specifically the institution of the
clinique (translated as "clinic", but here largely referring to teaching hospitals). Its motif is the concept of the medical
regard (a concept which has garnered a lot of attention from English-language readers, due to Alan Sheridan's unusual translation, "
medical gaze").
The Order of Things
Foucault's
Les Mots et les choses. Une archéologie des sciences humaines was published in 1966. It was translated into English in 1970 under the title
The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (Foucault had preferred
L'Ordre des Choses for the original French title, but changed the title as there was already another book of this title).
The book opened with an extended discussion of
Diego Velázquez's painting
Las Meninas and its complex arrangement of sight-lines, hiddenness and appearance. Then it developed its central claim: that all periods of history possessed certain underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable as, for example,
scientific discourse. Foucault argued that these conditions of discourse changed over time, in major and relatively sudden shifts, from one period's
episteme to another.
The Order of Things brought Foucault to prominence as an intellectual figure in France. A review by
Jean-Paul Sartre attacked Foucault as 'the last rampart of the
bourgeoisie'.
The Archaeology of Knowledge
Published in 1969, this volume was Foucault's main excursion into methodology. He wrote it in order to deal with the reception of
Les Mots et les choses. It makes references to Anglo-American
analytical philosophy, particularly
speech act theory.
Foucault directs his analysis toward the "statement", the basic unit of
discourse that he believes has been ignored up to this point. "Statement" is the English translation from French
énoncé (that which is enunciated or expressed), which has a peculiar meaning for Foucault. "Énoncé" for Foucault means that which makes
propositions,
utterances, or
speech acts meaningful. In this understanding, statements themselves are not
propositions,
utterances, or
speech acts. Rather, statements create a network of rules establishing what is meaningful, and it is these rules that are the preconditions for
propositions,
utterances, or
speech acts to have meaning. Statements are also 'events'. Depending on whether or not they comply with the rules of meaning, a grammatically correct sentence may still lack meaning and inversely, an incorrect sentence may still be meaningful. Statements depend on the conditions in which they emerge and exist within a field of discourse. It is huge entities of statements, called discursive formations, toward which Foucault aims his analysis. It is important to note that Foucault reiterates that the analysis he is outlining is only one possible tactic, and that he is not seeking to displace other ways of analysing discourse or render them as invalid.
Foucault's posture toward the statements is radical. Not only does he bracket out issues of
truth; he also brackets out issues of
meaning. Rather than looking for a deeper meaning underneath discourse or looking for the source of meaning in some transcendental subject, Foucault analyzes the conditions of existence for meaning. In order to show the principles of meaning production in various discursive formations he details how truth claims emerge during various epochs on the basis of what was actually said and written during these periods of time. He particularly describes the
Renaissance, the
Age of Enlightenment, and the 20th Century. He strives to avoid all interpretation and to depart from the goals of
hermeneutics. This posture allows Foucault to move away from an
anthropological standpoint and focus on the role of discursive practices.
Dispensing with finding a deeper meaning behind discourse would appear to lead Foucault toward
structuralism. However, whereas structuralists search for homogeneity in a discursive entity, Foucault focuses on differences. Instead of asking what constitutes the specificity of European thought he asks what differences develop within it over time. Therefore, he refuses to examine statements outside of their role in the discursive formation, and he never examines
possible statements that could have emerged from such a formation. His identity as a historian emerges here, as he is only interested in analysing actual statements in history. The whole of the system and its discursive rules determine the identity of the statement. But, a discursive formation continually generates new statements, and some of these usher in changes in the discursive formation that may or may not be realized. Therefore, to describe a discursive formation, Foucault also focuses on expelled and forgotten discourses that never happen to change the discursive formation. Their difference to the dominant discourse also describe it. In this way one can describe specific systems that determine which types of statements emerge.
Discipline and Punish
Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison was translated to English in 1977, from the French
Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison, published in 1975.
The book opens with a graphic description of the brutal public execution in 1757 of
Robert-François Damiens, who attempted to kill
Louis XV. Against this it juxtaposes a colourless prison timetable from just over 80 years later. Foucault then inquires how such a change in French society's punishment of convicts could have developed in such a short time. These are snapshots of two contrasting types of Foucault's "Technologies of Punishment". The first type, "Monarchical Punishment", involves the repression of the populace through brutal public displays of
executions and
torture. The second, "Disciplinary Punishment," is what Foucault says is practiced in the modern era. Disciplinary punishment gives "professionals" (psychologists, programme facilitators, parole officers, etc.) power over the prisoner, most notably in that the prisoner's length of stay depends on the professionals' opinion.
Foucault also compares modern society with
Jeremy Bentham's "
Panopticon" design for prisons (which was unrealized in its original form, but nonetheless influential): in the Panopticon, a single guard can watch over many prisoners while the guard remains unseen. The dark dungeon of pre-modernity has been replaced with the bright modern prison, but Foucault cautions that "visibility is a trap". It is through this visibility, Foucault writes, that modern society exercises its controlling systems of power and knowledge (terms which Foucault believed to be so fundamentally connected that he often combined them in a single hyphenated concept, "power-knowledge"). Increasing visibility leads to power located on an increasingly individualized level, shown by the possibility for institutions to track individuals throughout their lives. Foucault suggests that a "carceral continuum" runs through modern society, from the maximum security prison, through secure accommodation, probation, social workers, police, and teachers, to our everyday working and domestic lives. All are connected by the (witting or unwitting) supervision (surveillance, application of norms of acceptable behaviour) of some humans by others.
The History of Sexuality
Three volumes of
The History of Sexuality were published before Foucault's death in 1984. The first and most referenced volume,
The Will to Knowledge (previously known as
An Introduction in English â€"
Histoire de la sexualité, 1: la volonté de savoir in French) was published in France in 1976, and translated in 1977, focusing primarily on the last two centuries, and the functioning of sexuality as an analytics of power related to the emergence of a science of sexuality (scientia sexualis) and the emergence of
biopower in the West. In this volume he attacks the "repressive hypothesis," the widespread belief that we have, particularly since the nineteenth century, "repressed" our natural sexual drives. He shows that what we think of as "repression" of sexuality actually constituted sexuality as a core feature of our identities, and produced a proliferation of discourse on the subject.
The second two volumes,
The Use of Pleasure (
Histoire de la sexualite, II: l'usage des plaisirs) and
The Care of the Self (
Histoire de la sexualité, III: le souci de soi) dealt with the role of sex in
Greek and
Roman antiquity. Both were published in 1984, the year of Foucault's death, with the second volume being translated in 1985, and the third in 1986. Some believe that a fourth volume, dealing with the Christian era, was almost complete at the time of Foucault's death. Foucault scholar and friend,
Arnold Davidson, has denied that an intended fourth and fifth volume in the series had ever been written.
Lectures
From 1970 until his death in 1984, from January to March of each year except 1977, Foucault gave a course of public lectures and seminars weekly at the
Collège de France as the condition of his tenure as professor there. All these lectures were tape-recorded, and Foucault's transcripts also survive. In 1997 these lectures began to be published in French with six volumes having appeared so far. So far, four sets of lectures have appeared in English:
Psychiatric Power 1973-1974,
Abnormal 1974-1975,
Society Must Be Defended 1975 - 1976, and
The Hermeneutics of the Subject 1981-1982. Notes of Foucault's lectures from UC Berkeley has also appeared as
Fearless Speech.
Society Must Be Defended (1975-76)In this course, Foucault analyzed the historical and political discourse of "race struggle". He also created the concept of "
state racism".
Terminology
Terms coined or largely redefined by Foucault, as translated into English:
*
biopower/
biopolitics*
Disciplinary institutions*
episteme (
épistémé)
*
genealogy*
governmentality*
heterotopia*
parrhesia*
power*
state racismMichel Foucault has also had some participation in political life.
In 1977, while a Commission of the French
Parliament discussed a change in the French
Penal Code, he signed a
petition, along with
Jacques Derrida and
Louis Althusser, among others, asking for the
abrogation of some articles of the law in order to
decriminalize all consensual relations between adults and minors below the age of fifteen (the
age of consent in France).
These ideas are expressed in his text
Sexual Morality and the Law, chapter 16 of his book
Politics, Philosophy, Culture â€" Interviews and other writings 1977-1984.
He believed that the
penal system was replacing the
punishment of
criminal acts by the creation of the figure of the individual
dangerous to society (regardless of any actual crime), and predicted that a
society of dangers would come, where sexuality would be a kind of roaming danger, a "phantom". He stressed that this would be possible thanks to the establishment of a "new medical power", interested in profits coming from the treatment of this "dangerous individual".
.
Many thinkers have criticized Foucault, including
Charles Taylor,
Noam Chomsky,
Camille Paglia,
Jürgen Habermas,
Jacques Derrida,
Jean Baudrillard,
Nancy Fraser,
Slavoj Žižek and historian
Hayden White, among others. While each of these thinkers takes issue with different aspects of Foucault's work, all of these approaches share the same basic orientation: they argue that Foucault rejects the values and philosophy associated with the
Enlightenment while simultaneously secretly relying on them. This criticism is developed, for example, in Derrida (1978). It is claimed that this failure either makes him dangerously
nihilistic, or that he cannot be taken seriously in his disavowal of normative values because in fact his work ultimately presupposes them.
It is important to note, however, that there has been considerable debate over these criticisms and that they are not universally accepted as valid by all critics. Foucault himself on a number of occasions explained that he believed strongly in human
freedom and that his philosophy was a fundamentally optimistic one, as he believed that something positive could always be done no matter how bleak the situation. One might also add that his work is actually aimed at refuting the position that
Reason (or "rationality") is the sole means of guaranteeing
truth and the validity of ethical systems. Thus, to criticise Reason is not to reject all notions of truth and
ethics as some of these critics claim.
Foucault has also been criticised for his use of historical information, with claims that he frequently misrepresented things, got his facts wrong, or simply made them up entirely. For example, some historians argue that what Foucault called the "Great Confinement" in
Madness and Civilization did not in fact occur during the 17th century, but rather in the 19th century,
which casts doubt on Foucault's association of the confinement of madmen with the Age of Enlightenment. Despite concerns about his accuracy, Foucault's analysis and methods have influenced a number of other historians such as
Roger Chartier and his studies about the "invention of the author."
Madness and Civilization was also famously criticised by
Jacques Derrida who took issue with Foucault's reading of
René Descartes'
Meditations on First Philosophy. Derrida's criticism led to a break in their friendship and marked the beginning of a fifteen-yearâ€"long feud between the two. They eventually reconciled in the early 1980s (reportedly, this reconciliation was due in part to Foucault's defense of Derrida after the latter was caught with marijuana in Prague).
There are also notable exchanges with
Lawrence Stone and
George Steiner on the subject of Foucault's historical accuracy, as well as a discussion with historian
Jacques Leonard concerning
Discipline and Punish. Foucault's "histories" have nonetheless drawn considerable attention from "mainstream" historians as Foucault's works frequently dealt with unique or overlooked historical problems.
The study of Foucault's thought is complicated because his ideas developed and changed over time. Just how they changed and at what levels is a matter of some dispute amongst scholars of his work. Some scholars argue that underneath the changes of subject matter there are certain themes that run through all of his work. But as
David Gauntlett (2002) suggests:
In a similar vein, Foucault preferred not to claim that he was presenting a coherent and timeless block of knowledge; rather, as he says:
Influences on Foucault's work
Thinkers whose work had a strong impact on Foucault's thought include:
*
Louis Althusser — French structuralist Marxist philosopher and Foucault's sometime teacher and mentor.
*
Roland Barthes — French (post) structuralist literary critic who was at one time very close to Foucault.
*
Georges Bataille — French Nietzschean political and aesthetic philosopher.
*
Maurice Blanchot — Literary critic and novelist whose views on non polemical critique had a strong impact on Foucault
*
Georges Canguilhem — French historian of science.
*
Gilles Deleuze — French philosopher. A great friend and ally of Foucault's in the early 1970s.
*
Georges Dumézil — French structuralist mythologist, known for his reconstruction of
Indo-Aryan mythology.
*
Martin Heidegger — German philosopher whose influence was enormous in post-war France. Foucault rarely referred to him, but called him 'the essential philosopher'.
*
Jean Hyppolite — French
Hegel scholar and Foucault's sometime
khâgne teacher.
*
Karl Marx — Marx's influence in French intellectual life was dominant from 1945 through to the late 1970s. Foucault often opposed unthinking forms of Marxist ideology, but was not adverse to referring to Marx's own work on occasion.
*
Maurice Merleau-Ponty — French philosopher and sometime teacher of Foucault.
Phenomenologist instrumental in popularising
Saussure's
structuralism for a philosophical audience.
*
Friedrich Nietzsche — German philosopher whose work greatly influenced Foucault's conception of society and power. Towards the end of his life, Foucault stated quite categorically: "I am a Nietzschean".
Influence of Foucault's work
Foucault's work is frequently referred to in disciplines as diverse as
art,
philosophy,
history,
anthropology,
archaeology,
communication studies,
rhetoric,
cultural studies,
linguistics,
sociology,
education,
psychology,
literary theory,
feminism,
queer theory,
management studies,
the philosophy of science,
urban design,
museum studies, and many others. Quantitative evidence of the impact of his work can be found in the sheer volume of citations in standard academic journal indexes such as the Social Sciences Citation Index [
1] (more than 9000 citations). A keyword search of the
Library of Congress catalogue [
2] reveals over 750 volumes in a variety of languages relating to his writings, and a search on
Google Scholar [
3] reveals thousands of citations.
In the famous 1971 debate between Michel Foucault and
Noam Chomsky on Dutch Television, Foucault was asked to wear a bright red wig when giving his presentation (he refused) and was partially paid for the appearance with a chunk of hashish, which Foucault apparently called "Chomsky Hash." Although the conversation was friendly, Chomsky afterward referred to Foucault's views as "completely amoral."[
4]
Monographs
| Year | Original French | English Translation | | 1954 | Maladie mentale et personnalité (Paris: PUF, 1954) re-edited as Maladie mentale et psychologie (1995) | Mental Illness and Psychology trans. by A. M. Sheridan-Smith, (New York: Harper and Row, 1976) |
| 1961 | Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique - Folie et déraison (Paris: Plon, 1961) | Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason trans. by R. Howard, (London: Tavistock, 1965) - this is a greatly abridged version |
| 1963 | Naissance de la clinique - une archéologie du regard médical (Paris: PUF, 1963) | The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception |
| 1963 | Raymond Roussel (Paris: Gallimard, 1963) | Death and the Labyrinth: the World of Raymond Roussel |
| 1966 | Les mots et les choses - une archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris : Gallimard, 1966) | The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences |
| 1969 | L'archéologie du savoir (Paris : Gallimard, 1969) | Archaeology of Knowledge) (first three chapters available here) |
| 1971 | L'ordre du discours (Paris : Gallimard, 1971) | 'The Discourse in Language'; translation appears as an appendix to the Archaeology of Knowledge |
| 1975 | Surveiller et punir (Paris : Gallimard, 1975) | Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison |
| 1976-84 | Histoire de la sexualité
Vol I: La Volonté de savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1976)
Vol II: L'Usage des plaisirs (Paris: Gallimard, 1984)
Vol III: Le Souci de soi (Paris: Gallimard, 1984) | The History of Sexuality
Vol I: The Will to Knowledge
Vol II: The Use of Pleasure
Vol III: The Care of the Self |
|
The Collège Courses
| Year | Original French | English Translation | | 1997 | 1976-1977 Il faut défendre la societé | Society Must Be Defended |
| 1999 | 1974-1975 Les anormaux | Abnormal |
| 2001 | 1981-1982 L'herméneutique du sujet | The Hermeneutics of the Subject |
| 2003 | 1973-1974 Le pouvoir psychiatrique | "Psychiatric Power" |
| 2004 | 1977-1978 Securité, territoire, population | Not yet available in English |
| 2004 | 1978-1979 Naissance de la biopolitique | Not yet available in English |
|
Collaborative works
| Year | Original French | English Translation | | 1973 | Moi, Pierre Rivière, ayant égorgé ma mère, ma soeur et mon frère (Gallimard) | I, Pierre Rivere, Having Slaughtered my Mother, my Sister and my Brother (Penguin, 1975) |
| 1978 | Herculine Barbin dite Alexina B. (Gallimard, 1978) | Herculine Barbin (New York: Pantheon, 1980).| 1982 | Le Désordre des familles. Lettres de cachet'' with Arlette Farge (Gallimard) | Not yet available in English | |
|
Other books
| Year | Original French | English Translation | | 1973 | "Ceci n'est pas une pipe" | This is not a pipe (1991)>- | 1980 | Interview with Michel Foucault originally published in Italian, then in French in 1994 | Remarks on Marx (1991) |
| 2001 | Berkeley lecture series, also never published in French | Fearless Speech |
|
Anthologies
In French, almost all of Foucault shorter writings, published interviews and miscellany have been published in a collection called
Dits et écrits, originally published in four volumes in 1994, latterly in only two volumes.
In English, there are a number of overlapping anthologies, which often use conflicting translations of the overlapping pieces, frequently with different titles. Richard Lynch's [
bibliography of Foucault's shorter work is invaluable for keeping track of these multiple versions. The major collections in English are:
Language, counter-memory, practice, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (1977)
Power/Knowledge, ed. Colin Gordon (1980)
The Foucault Reader, ed.
Paul Rabinow (1984)
Politics, Philosophy, Culture, ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman (1988)
Foucault Live (2nd Ed.), ed. Sylvère Lotringer (1996)
The Politics of Truth, ed. Sylvère Lotringer (1997)
Ethics : subjectivity and truth (Essential Works Vol. 1), ed.Paul Rabinow (1997)
Aesthetics, Method, Epistemology (Essential Works Vol.2), ed. James D. Faubion (1998)
Power (Essential Works Vol. 3), ed. James D. Faubion (2000)
The Essential Foucault, eds. Paul Rabinow and Nikolas Rose (2003)
* Afary, Janet; & Anderson, Kevin B.
Foucault and the Iranian Revolution. (University of Chicago Press, 2005) - Details Foucault's trips to Iran, and publishes his essays on Iran in English for the first time.
* Derrida, Jacques. Cogito and the History of Madness. In Alan Bass (tr.),
Writing and Difference, pp. 31-63. (Chicago University Press, 1978)
* Eribon, Didier.
Michel Foucault (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).Considered in France, according to Le Monde, as the best biography of Foucault.
* Eribon Didier.
Insult and the Making of the Gay Self (Duke University Press, 2004). The third part - about 150 pages of this book - is devoted to Foucault and a reinterpretation of his life and work.
* Foucault, Michel.
Sexual Morality and the Law (originally published as
La loi de la pudeur), is the Chapter 16 of Politics, Philosophy, Culture (see "Notes"), pp. 271-285.
* Hoy, D. (Ed.).
Foucault. (Oxford, Blackwell, 1986)
* Hicks, Stephen R. C.
Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault (Scholargy Publishing, 2004)
* Macey, David.
The Lives of Michel Foucault (London: Hutchison, 1993) - This is the most detailed biography of Foucault.
* Miller, James.
The Passion of Michel Foucault (London: HarperCollins, 1993) - A number of scholars have expressed reservations in relation to some of the sensational claims made in this biography.
* Smart, B.
Foucault. (Chichester, Ellis Horwood, 1985)
*
Repository of texts from Foucault.info (excerpts from Discipline & punish, Archeology of knowledge, Heterotopia, Manet, Pierre Rivière, Enlightenment, Author Function, etc.)
*
List of texts from DMOZ
*
Thefoucauldian.co.uk 18 online texts on Pierre Rivière, technologies of the self, archeology of knowledge, Nietzsche & genealogy, etc.
*
Online audiorecording of Foucault at UC Berkeley, April 1983: "The Culture of the Self"*
Sexual Morality and the Law, April 1978 - Transcript of a Radio
France Culture conversation between Foucault, Jean Danet, and Guy Hocquenghem about age of consent.
General sites (updated regularly):
*
Foucault, info*
Michel Foucault: Resources *
Foucault at theory.org.uk Other Foucault entries:
*
Michel Foucault entry at the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*
Foucault article by Mark Poster from the
Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism*
Retrospective article written by Michel Foucault
*
Good place to start - Review of a Foucault biography, written by noted scholar and Foucauldian David Halperin
*
University of Minnesota â€" Dept. of Communications Studies â€" Detailed summary of the book
"Politics, Philosophy, Culture - Interviews and other writings 1977-1984", chapter by chapter.
Bibliographies:
*
Lynch's bibliography*
French and English bibliographiesPages of related links:
*
Links from Foucault Resources
*
Foucault, Michel category at dmoz.org
Miscellaneous:
*
Foucault Studies - an electronic, refereed, international journal
*
Foucault's Paris - Walking tour of Paris
*
Dossiers - Thematic micro-sites
