Middle-earth
Middle-earth is the name used for the inhabitable parts of
J.R.R. Tolkien's fictional
Arda (ancient
Earth) where the (
canonical) stories in his
legendarium take place. "Middle-earth" is a literal translation of the
Old English term
middangeard, referring to this world, the habitable lands of men. Tolkien translated "Middle-earth" as
Endor (or sometimes Endóre) and
Ennor in the
Elvish languages
Quenya and
Sindarin, respectively. Mythologically, the north of Endor became the
Eurasian land-mass after the primitive Earth was transformed into the
round world of today. Less formally, the term "Middle-earth" is also often used to refer to the entire setting of Tolkien's legendarium.
Middle-earth's setting is in a fictional period in Earth's own past. Tolkien insisted that Middle-earth is (part of) our Earth in several of
his letters, in one of them (no. 211) estimating the end of the
Third Age to about 6,000 years before his own time. The action of the books is largely confined to the north-west of the Endor continent, implicitly corresponding to modern-day
Europe. The
history of Middle-earth is divided into several Ages:
The Hobbit and the main text of
The Lord of the Rings deal exclusively with events toward the end of the
Third Age and conclude at the dawn of the
Fourth Age, while
The Silmarillion deals mainly with the
First Age. The world (
Arda) was originally flat but was made round near the end of the
Second Age by
Eru Ilúvatar, the Creator.
Much of the knowledge of Middle-earth is based on writings that Tolkien did not finish for publication during his lifetime. This has caused some controversy over what is considered "canonical"; for more information, see
Middle-earth canon.
The term "Middle-earth" was not invented by Tolkien. Rather, it existed in
Old English as
middanġeard and in
Middle English as
midden-erd or
middel-erd; in
Old Norse it was called
Midgard. It is English for what the
Greeks called the (
oikoumene) or "abiding place of men", the physical world as opposed to the unseen worlds (
The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, 151).
Middangeard occurs half-a-dozen times in
Beowulf, which Tolkien translated and on which he was arguably the world's foremost authority. (See also
J. R. R. Tolkien for discussion of his inspirations and sources). See
Midgard and
Norse mythology for the older use.
Tolkien was also inspired by this fragment:
Eala earendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended.Hail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle-earth sent unto men.in the
Crist poem of
Cynewulf. The name
earendel (which may mean the 'morning-star' but in some contexts was a name for
Christ) was the inspiration for Tolkien's mariner
Eärendil.
The name was consciously used by Tolkien to place
The Hobbit,
The Lord of the Rings,
The Silmarillion, and related writings.
Tolkien began to use the term "Middle-earth" in the early 1930s in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands", "Outer Lands", and "Hither Lands" to describe the same region in his stories. "Middle-earth" is specifically intended to describe the lands east of the Great Sea (
Belegaer), thus excluding
Aman, but including
Harad and other mortal lands not visited in Tolkien's stories. Many people apply the name to the entirety of Tolkien's world or exclusively to the lands described in
The Hobbit,
The Lord of the Rings, and
The Silmarillion.
In ancient Germanic and
Old Norse mythology, the universe was believed to consist of nine physical worlds joined together. The world of Men, the Middle-earth, lay in the centre of this universe. The lands of Elves, Gods, and Giants lay across an encircling sea. The land of the Dead lay beneath the Middle-earth. A rainbow bridge,
Bifrost Bridge, extended from Middle-earth to Asgard across the sea. An outer sea encircled the seven other worlds (
Vanaheim,
Asgard,
Alfheim,
SvartAlfheim,
Muspellheim,
Nidavellir, and
Jotunheim). In this conception, a "world" was more equivalent to a racial homeland than a physically separate world.
The term "Middle-earth" is often misspelled as "
Middle-Earth" or "Middle Earth".
J.R.R. Tolkien never finalized the geography for the entire world associated with
The Hobbit and
The Lord of the Rings. In
The Shaping of Middle-earth, volume IV of
The History of Middle-earth, Christopher Tolkien published several remarkable maps, of both the original flat earth and round world, which his father had created in the latter part of the 1930s.
Karen Wynn Fonstad drew from these maps to develop detailed, but non-canonical, "whole world maps" reflecting a world consistent with the historical ages depicted in
The Silmarillion,
The Hobbit, and
The Lord of the Rings.
Maps prepared by Christopher Tolkien and/or J.R.R. Tolkien for the world encompassing
The Hobbit and
The Lord of the Rings were published as foldouts or illustrations in
The Hobbit,
The Lord of the Rings, and
The Silmarillion. Early conceptions of the maps provided in
The Silmarillion and
The Lord of the Rings were included in several volumes, including "The First Silmarillion Map" in
The Shaping of Middle-earth, "The First Map of the Lord of the Rings" in
The Treason of Isengard, "The Second Map (West)" and "The Second Map (East)" in
The War of the Ring, and "The Second Map of Middle-earth west of the Blue Mountains" (also known as "The Second Silmarillion Map") in
The War of the Jewels.
Endor, the Quenya term for Middle-earth, was originally conceived of as conforming to a largely symmetrical scheme which was marred by Melkor. The symmetry was defined by two large sub-continents, one in the north and one in the south, with each of them boasting two long chains of mountains in the eastward and westward regions. The mountain chains were given names based on colours (White Mountains, Blue Mountains, Grey Mountains, and Red Mountains).
The various conflicts with Melkor resulted in the shapes of the lands being distorted. Originally, there was a single inland body of water, in the midst of which was set the island of
Almaren where the Valar lived. When Melkor destroyed the lamps of the Valar which gave light to the world, two vast seas were created, but Almaren and its lake were destroyed. The northern sea became the
Sea of Helcar (Helkar). The lands west of the Blue Mountains became
Beleriand . Melkor raised the
Misty Mountains to impede the progress of the Vala Oromë as he hunted Melkor's beasts during the period of darkness prior to the awakening of the
Elves.
The violent struggles during the
War of Wrath between the Host of the Valar and the armies of Melkor at the end of the First Age brought about the destruction of Beleriand. It is also possible that during this time the inland sea of Helcar was drained.
The world, not including associated celestial bodies, was identified by Tolkien as "Ambar" in several texts, but also identified as "Imbar", the Habitation, in later post-
Lord of the Rings texts. From the time of the destruction of the two lamps until the time of the Downfall of Númenor, Ambar was supposed to be a "flat world", in that its habitable land-masses were all arranged on one side of the world. His sketches show a disk-like face for the world which looked up to the stars. A western continent,
Aman, was the home of the Valar (and the
Eldar). The middle lands, Endor, were called "Middle-earth" and they are the site of most of Tolkien's stories. The eastern continent was not inhabited.
When Melkor poisoned the Two Trees of the Valar and fled from Aman back to Endor, the Valar created the Sun and the Moon, which were separate bodies (from Ambar) but still parts of Arda (the Realm of the
Children of Ilúvatar). A few years after publishing
The Lord of the Rings, in a note associated with the unique narrative story "Athrabeth Finrod ah Andreth" (which is said to occur in Beleriand during the
War of the Jewels), Tolkien equated Arda with the Solar System; because Arda by this point consisted of more than one heavenly body.
According to the accounts in both
The Silmarillion and
The Lord of the Rings, when
Ar-Pharazôn invaded Aman to seize immortality from the Valar, they laid down their guardianship of the world and
Ilúvatar intervened, destroying Númenor, removing Aman "from the circles of the world", and reshaping Ambar into the round world of today.
Akallabêth says that the Númenóreans who survived the Downfall sailed as far west as they could in search of their ancient home, but their travels only brought them around the world back to their starting points. Hence, before the end of the Second Age, the transition from "flat Earth" to "round Earth" had been completed.
The Endor continent became approximately equivalent to the
Eurasian land-mass, but Tolkien's fictional geography does not provide any exact correlations between the narrative of
The Lord of the Rings and Europe or near-by lands. It is therefore assumed that the reader understands the world underwent a subsequent undocumented transformation (which some people speculate Tolkien would have equated with the Biblical deluge) sometime after the end of the Third Age.
The history of Middle-earth is divided into four time periods, known as the
Ainulindalë, the
Years of the Lamps, the
Years of the Trees and the
Years of the Sun.
The supreme deity of Tolkien's universe is called
Eru Ilúvatar. In the beginning, Ilúvatar created spirits named the
Ainur and he taught them to make music. After the Ainur had become proficient in their skills, Ilúvatar commanded them to make a great music based on a theme of his own design. The most powerful Ainu,
Melkor (later called
Morgoth or "Dark Enemy" by the elves), Tolkien's equivalent of
Satan, disrupted the theme, and in response Ilúvatar introduced new themes that enhanced the music beyond the comprehension of the Ainur. The movements of their song laid the seeds of much of the history of the as yet unmade universe and the people who were to dwell therein.
Then Ilúvatar stopped the music and he revealed its meaning to the Ainur through a Vision. Moved by the Vision, many of the Ainur felt a compelling urge to experience its events directly. Ilúvatar therefore created
Eä, the universe itself, and some of the Ainur went down into the universe to share in its experience. But upon arriving in Eä, the Ainur found it was shapeless because they had entered at the beginning of Time. The Ainur undertook great labours in these unnamed "ages of the stars", in which they shaped the universe and filled it with many things far beyond the reach of Men. In time, however, the Ainur formed
Arda, the abiding place of the Children of Ilúvatar, Elves and Men. The fifteen most powerful Ainur are called the
Valar, of whom Melkor was the most powerful, but
Manwë was the leader. The Valar settled in Arda to watch over it and help prepare it for the awakening of the Children.
Arda began as a single flat world, which the Valar gave light to through two immense lamps. Melkor destroyed the lamps and brought darkness to the world. The Valar retreated to the extreme western regions of Arda, where they created the Two Trees to give light to their new homeland. After many ages, the Valar imprisoned Melkor to punish and rehabilitate him, and to protect the awakening Children. But when Melkor was released on parole he poisoned the Two Trees. The Valar took the last two living fruit of the Two Trees and used them to create the Moon and Sun, which remained a part of Arda but were separate from Ambar (the world).
Before the end of the
Second Age, when the Men of
Númenor by the deceits of Sauron, Morgoth's most powerful servant of all and chief captain, rebelled against the Valar, Ilúvatar destroyed Númenor, separated
Valinor from the rest of Arda, and formed new lands, making the world round. Only Endor remained of the original world, and Endor had now become Eurasia.
|
A speculative map of Aman during the Second Age. |
The Years of the Lamps began shortly after the
Valar finished their labours in shaping Arda. The Valar created two lamps to illuminate the world, and the Vala
Aulë forged great towers, one in the furthest north, and another in the deepest south. The Valar lived in the middle, on the island of
Almaren.
Melkor's destruction of the two Lamps marked the end of the Years of the Lamps.
Then
Yavanna made the
Two Trees named
Telperion and
Laurelin in the land of
Aman. The Trees illuminated Aman, leaving the rest of Arda in darkness, illuminated only by the stars. At the start of the
First Age the
Elves awoke beside Lake
Cuiviénen in the east of Endor, and were soon approached by the Valar. Many of the Elves were persuaded to undertake the
Great Journey westwards towards Aman, but not all of them completed the journey (see
Sundering of the Elves). The Valar had imprisoned Melkor but he appeared to repent and was released on parole. He sowed great discord among the Elves and stirred up rivalry between the Elven princes
Fëanor and
Fingolfin. He then slew their father, king
Finwë and stole the
Silmarils, three gems crafted by Fëanor that contained light of the Two Trees, from his vault, and destroyed the Trees themselves.
Fëanor persuaded most of his people, the
Noldor, to leave Aman in pursuit of Melkor to
Beleriand, cursing him with the name
Morgoth. Fëanor led the first of two groups of Noldor. The larger group was led by
Fingolfin. The Noldor stopped at the
Teleri's port-city,
Alqualondë, but the Teleri refused to give them ships to get to Middle-earth. The first
Kinslaying thus ensued, Fëanor and many of his followers attacked the Teleri and stole their ships. Fëanor's host sailed on the stolen ships, leaving Fingolfin's behind to cross over to Middle-earth through the deadly
Helcaraxë (or Grinding Ice) in the far north. Subsequently Fëanor was slain, but most of his sons survived and founded realms, as did Fingolfin and his heirs.
The Years of the Sun began when the Valar made the Sun and it rose over the world,
Imbar. After several great battles, a
Long Peace ensued for four hundred years, during which time the first Men entered Beleriand by crossing over the
Blue Mountains. When Morgoth broke the
siege of Angband, one by one the Elven kingdoms fell, even the hidden city of
Gondolin. The only measurable success achieved by Elves and Men came when Beren of the
Edain and Lúthien, daughter of
Thingol and
Melian, retrieved a Silmaril from the crown of Morgoth. Afterward, Beren and Lúthien died, and were restored to life by the Valar with the understanding that Lúthien was to become mortal and Beren should never be seen by Men again.
Thingol quarrelled with the Dwarves of Nogrod and they slew him, stealing the Silmaril. With the help of Ents, Beren waylaid the Dwarves and recovered the Silmaril, which he gave to Lúthien. Soon afterwards, both Beren and Lúthien died again. The Silmaril was given to their son
Dior Half-Elven, who had restored the Kingdom of
Doriath. The sons of
Fëanor demanded that Dior surrender the Silmaril to them, and he refused. The Fëanorians destroyed Doriath and killed Dior in the second Kinslaying, but Dior's young daughter Elwing escaped with the jewel. Three sons of
Fëanor —
Celegorm,
Curufin, and
Caranthir — died trying to retake the jewel.
By the end of the age, all that remained of the free Elves and Men in
Beleriand was a settlement at the mouth of the
River Sirion. Among them was
Eärendil, who married
Elwing. But the Fëanorians again demanded the Silmaril be returned to them, and after their demand was rejected they resolved to take the jewel by force, leading to the third Kinslaying. Eärendil and Elwing took the Silmaril across the
Great Sea, to beg the Valar for pardon and aid. The Valar responded. Melkor was captured, most of his works were destroyed, and he was banished beyond the confines of the world into the
Door of Night.
The Silmarils were recovered at a terrible cost, as
Beleriand itself was broken and began to sink under the sea. Feanor's last remaining sons,
Maedhros and
Maglor, were ordered to return to
Valinor. They proceeded to steal the Silmarils from the victorious
Valar. But, as with Melkor, the Silmarils burned their hands and they then realized they were not meant to possess them and that the oath was null. Each of the brothers met his fate: Maedhros threw himself with the Silmaril into a chasm of fire, and Maglor threw his Silmaril into the sea. Thus the three Silmarils ended in the
sky with Eärendil, in the
earth, and in the
sea respectively.
Thus began the
Second Age. The Edain were given the island of
Númenor toward the west of the
Great Sea as their home, while many Elves were welcomed into the West. The Númenóreans became great seafarers, but also became increasingly jealous of the Elves for their immortality. But after a few centuries,
Sauron, Morgoth's chief servant, began to organize evil creatures in the eastern lands. He persuaded Elven smiths in
Eregion to create
Rings of Power, and secretly forged
the One Ring to control the other rings. But the Elves became aware of Sauron's plan as soon as he put the One Ring on his hand, and they removed their own Rings before he could master their wills.
|
A map of Númenor during the Second Age. |
The last Númenórean king
Ar-Pharazôn, by the strength of his army, humbled even Sauron and brought him to Númenor as a hostage. But with the help of the One Ring, Sauron deceived Ar-Pharazôn and convinced the king to invade Aman, promising immortality for all those who set foot on the
Undying Lands.
Amandil, chief of those still faithful to the Valar, tried to sail west to seek their aid. His son
Elendil and grandsons
Isildur and
Anárion prepared to flee east to Middle-earth. When the King's forces landed on Aman, the Valar called for Ilúvatar to intervene. The world was changed, and Aman was removed from
Imbar. From that time onward, Men could no longer find Aman, but Elves seeking passage in specially hallowed ships received the grace of using the
Straight Road, which led from Middle-earth's seas to the seas of Aman. Númenor was utterly destroyed, and with it the fair body of Sauron, but his spirit endured and fled back to Middle-Earth. Elendil and his sons escaped to Endor and founded the realms of
Gondor and
Arnor. Sauron soon rose again, but the Elves allied with the Men to form the
Last Alliance and defeated him. His One Ring was taken from him by Isildur, but not destroyed.
The
Third Age saw the rise in power of the realms of Arnor and Gondor, and their decline. By the time of
The Lord of the Rings, Sauron had recovered much of his former strength, and was seeking the One Ring. He discovered that it was in the possession of a Hobbit and sent out the nine
Ringwraiths to retrieve it. The Ring-bearer,
Frodo Baggins, travelled to
Rivendell, where it was decided that the Ring had to be destroyed in the only way possible: casting it into the fires of
Mount Doom. Frodo set out on the quest with eight companions—the
Fellowship of the Ring. At the last moment he failed, but with the intervention of the creature
Gollum—who was saved by the pity of Frodo and
Bilbo Baggins—the Ring was nevertheless destroyed. Frodo with his companion
Sam Gamgee were hailed as heroes. Sauron was destroyed forever and his spirit dissipated.
The end of the Third Age marked the end of the dominion of the Elves and the beginning of the dominion of
Men. As the
Fourth Age began, many of the Elves who had lingered in Middle-earth left for Valinor, never to return; those who remained behind would "fade" and diminish. The Dwarves eventually dwindled away as well, and they also returned in large numbers to Moria and resettled it. Peace was restored between Gondor and the lands to the south and east. Eventually, the tales of the earlier Ages became legends, the truth behind them forgotten.
Tolkien devised two main Elven languages which would later become known to us as
Quenya, spoken by the
Vanyar,
Noldor, and some
Teleri, and
Sindarin, spoken by the
Sindar, the Elves who stayed in
Beleriand (see below). These languages were related, and a
Common Eldarin form ancestral to them both is postulated. Tolkien compared the use of Quenya as like
Latin, with Sindarin as the common speech.
Other languages of the world include
*
Adûnaic – spoken by the
Númenóreans*
Black Speech – devised by
Sauron for his slaves to speak
*
Khuzdûl – spoken by the
Dwarves*
Rohirric – spoken by the
Rohirrim – represented in the Lord of the Rings by
Old English*
Westron – The 'Common Speech' – represented by
English*
Valarin – The language of the Ainur
Middle-earth is home to several distinct intelligent species. First are the Ainur, angelic beings created by Ilúvatar. The Ainur sing for Ilúvatar, who creates Eä to give existence to their music in the cosmological myth called the
Ainulindalë, or "Music of the Ainur". Some of the Ainur then enter Eä, and the greatest of these are called the
Valar.
Melkor (later called
Morgoth), the chief personification of evil in Eä, is initially one of the Valar.
The other Ainur who enter Eä are called the
Maiar. In the First Age the most active Maia is
Melian, wife of the Elven King
Thingol; in the Third Age, during the
War of the Ring, five of the Maiar have been embodied and sent to Endor to help the free peoples to overthrow Sauron. Those are the
Istari (or
Wise Ones) (called
Wizards by Men), including
Gandalf,
Saruman,
Radagast,
Alatar and
Pallando. There were also evil Maiar, called Umaiar, including the
Balrogs and the second Dark Lord,
Sauron.
Later come the
Children of Ilúvatar:
Elves and
Men, intelligent beings created by Ilúvatar alone.
The Silmarillion tells how Elves and Men awaken and spread through the world. The Dwarves are said to have been made by the Vala
Aulë, who offered to destroy them when Ilúvatar confronted him. Ilúvatar forgives Aulë's transgression and adopts the Dwarves. Three tribes of Men who ally themselves with the Elves of
Beleriand in the First Age are called the
Edain.
As a reward for their loyalty and suffering in the
Wars of Beleriand, the descendants of the Edain are given the island of
Númenor to be their home. But as described in the section on
Middle-earth's history, Númenor is eventually destroyed and a remnant of the Númenóreans establish realms in the northern lands of Endor. Those who remained faithful to the Valar found the kingdoms of
Arnor and
Gondor. They are then known as the
Dúnedain, whereas other Númenórean survivors, still devoted to evil but living far to the south, become known as the
Black Númenóreans.
Tolkien identified Hobbits as an offshoot of the race of Men. Although their origins and ancient history are not known, Tolkien implied that they settled in the
Vales of Anduin early in the Third Age, but after a thousand years the Hobbits began migrating west over the
Misty Mountains into
Eriador. Eventually, many Hobbits settled in the
Shire.
After they are granted true life by Ilúvatar, the Dwarves' creator Aulë lays them to sleep in hidden mountain locations. Ilúvatar awakens the Dwarves only after the Elves have awakened. The Dwarves spread throughout northern Endor and eventually found seven kingdoms. Two of these kingdoms, Nogrod and Belegost, befriend the Elves of
Beleriand against Morgoth in the First Age. The greatest Dwarf kingdom is
Khazad-dûm, later known as
Moria.
The
Ents, shepherds of the trees, are created by Ilúvatar at the Vala
Yavanna's request to protect trees from the deprivations of Elves, Dwarves, and Men.
Orcs and
Trolls are evil creatures bred by Morgoth. They are not original creations but rather "mockeries" of the Children of Ilúvatar and Ents, since only Ilúvatar has the ability to give being to things. The detailed origins of Orcs and Trolls are unclear (Tolkien considered many possibilities and frequently changed his mind). It seems most likely that the Orcs were bred largely from corrupted Elves or Men or both. Late in the Third Age, the Uruks or
Uruk-hai appear: a race of Orcs of great size and strength that, unlike ordinary Orcs, are not hurt by daylight. (Some claim that by the end of the Third Age, the only Uruks properly called Uruk-hai are those serving Saruman). Saruman breeds Orcs and Men together to produce "Men-orcs" and "Orc-men"; at times, some of these are called "half-orcs" or "goblin-men". (There is no consensus as to whether Saruman's Uruk-hai were among these. The books contain no hint of the "pod grown" Uruk-hai portrayed in
Peter Jackson's recent
movie trilogy - although Jackson's idea may have been inspired by Gandalf's reference, in
The Fellowship of the Ring, to "all the orcs ever
spawned"
[emph. added].) Trolls are rarely seen (and not really described by Tolkien), stupid creatures, foul mouthed and brutal. If they are struck by daylight they turn to stone. In an episode of
The Hobbit, three trolls catch Bilbo and his Dwarf companions, and plan on eating them.
Seemingly
sapient animals also appear, such as the
Eagles,
Huan the Great Hound from
Valinor, and the
Wargs. The Eagles are created by Ilúvatar along with the Ents, but in general these animals' origins and nature are unclear. Some of them might be Maiar in animal form, or perhaps even the offspring of Maiar and normal animals. The giant spiders such as
Shelob are descended from normal spiders and
Ungoliant, who is possibly an Ainu.
The Hobbit and
The Lord of the Rings are presented as Tolkien's retelling of events depicted in the
Red Book of Westmarch, which was written by
Bilbo Baggins,
Frodo Baggins, and other Hobbits, and corrected and annotated by one or more Gondorian scholars. Like
Shakespeare's
King Lear or
Robert E. Howard's
Conan the Barbarian stories, the tales occupy a historical period that could not have actually existed. Dates for the length of the year and the phases of the moon, along with descriptions of constellations, firmly fix the world as Earth, no longer than several thousand years ago. Years after publication, Tolkien 'postulated' in a letter that the action of the books takes place roughly 6,000 years ago, though he was not certain.
Tolkien wrote extensively about the
linguistics,
mythology and
history of the world, which provide
back-story for these stories. Many of these writings were edited and published posthumously by his son
Christopher.
Notable among them is
The Silmarillion, which provides a Bible-like creation story and description of the
cosmology that includes Middle-earth.
The Silmarillion is the primary source of information about
Valinor,
Númenor, and other lands. Also notable are
Unfinished Tales and the multiple volumes of
The History of Middle-earth, which includes many incomplete stories and essays as well as numerous drafts of Tolkien's Middle-earth mythology, from the earliest forms down through the last writings of his life.
Middle-earth works by Tolkien
* 1937
The Hobbit** The
Hobbit Bilbo Baggins joins a company of Dwarves and the Wizard Gandalf in a quest to reclaim an old Dwarvish kingdom from the
dragon Smaug.
* 1954
The Fellowship of the Ring, part 1 of
The Lord of the Rings** Bilbo's cousin and heir
Frodo Baggins sets out on a quest to rid Middle-earth of the
One Ring, joined by the
Fellowship of the Ring.
* 1954
The Two Towers, part 2 of
The Lord of the Rings** The Fellowship is split apart: while Frodo and his servant
Sam continue their quest,
Aragorn,
Gimli and
Legolas fight to rescue the hobbits
Peregrin Took (Pippin) and
Meriadoc Brandybuck (Merry) from
Orcs and to save the Kingdom of
Rohan.
* 1955
The Return of the King, part 3 of
The Lord of the Rings** Frodo and Sam reach
Mordor, while Aragorn arrives in
Gondor and reclaims his heritage.
* 1962
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil and Other Verses from the Red Book** An assortment of poems, only loosely related to
The Lord of the Rings* 1967
The Road Goes Ever On** A song cycle with the composer
Donald Swann (long out of print but reprinted in 2002)
Tolkien died in 1973. All further works were edited by
Christopher Tolkien. Only
The Silmarillion is presented as a finished work — the others are collections of notes and draft versions.
* 1977
The Silmarillion** The history of the Elder Days, before the Lord of the Rings, including the
Downfall of Númenor* 1980
Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth** Stories and essays related to the
Silmarillion and
Lord of the Rings, but many were never completed.
The History of Middle-earth series:
* 1983
The Book of Lost Tales 1* 1984
The Book of Lost Tales 2** The earliest versions of the mythology, from start to finish
* 1985
The Lays of Beleriand** Two long poems (the Lay of Leithian about
Beren and
Lúthien, and the
Túrin saga)
* 1986
The Shaping of Middle-earth** Start of rewriting the mythology from the beginning
* 1987
The Lost Road and Other Writings** Introduction of Númenor to the mythology and continuation of rewriting
* 1988
The Return of the Shadow (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.1)
* 1989
The Treason of Isengard (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.2)
* 1990
The War of the Ring (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.3)
* 1992
Sauron Defeated (The History of The Lord of the Rings v.4)
** The development of the Lord of the Rings.
Sauron Defeated also includes another version of the Númenor story.
* 1993
Morgoth's Ring (The Later Silmarillion, part one)
* 1994
The War of the Jewels (The Later Silmarillion, part two)
** Post Lord of the Rings efforts to revise the mythology for publication. Includes the controversial 'Myths Transformed' section, which documents how Tolkien's thoughts changed radically in the last years of his life.
* 1996
The Peoples of Middle-earth** Source material for the appendices in
The Lord of the Rings and some more late writings related to
The Silmarillion and
The Lord of the Rings.
* 2002
History of Middle-earth: Index** This book has completely integrated all of the indices from the previous twelve volumes into one large index.
* 1990
Bilbo's Last Song** Poem
Works by others
A small selection of the dozens of books about Tolkien and his worlds:
* 1978
The Complete Guide to Middle-earth (ISBN 0345449762,
Robert Foster, generally recognised as the best reference book on
The Lord of the Rings. This guide does not include information from
Unfinished Tales or the
History of Middle-earth series, which leads to some errors by our choice of "canon" above.)
* 2004
The Annotated Hobbit,
Douglas Anderson, a comprehensive study of the publication history of
The Hobbit.
* 1981
The Atlas of Middle-earth (
Karen Wynn Fonstad – an atlas of
The Lord of the Rings,
The Hobbit,
The Silmarillion, and
The Unfinished Tales; revised 1991)
* 1981
Journeys of Frodo (
Barbara Strachey – an atlas of
The Lord of the Rings)
* 1983
The Road to Middle-earth (
Tom Shippey – literary analysis of Tolkien's stories from the perspective of a fellow philologist; last revised 2003)
* 2002
The Complete Tolkien Companion (ISBN 0330411659,
J. E. A. Tyler – a reference, covers
The Lord of the Rings,
The Hobbit,
The Silmarillion, and
Unfinished Tales; substantially improved over the two earlier editions.)
Films
In
letter #202 to
Christopher Tolkien, J. R. R. Tolkien set out his policy regarding film adaptations of his works: "Art or Cash". He sold the
film rights for
The Hobbit and
The Lord of the Rings to
United Artists in 1969 after being faced with a sudden
tax bill. They are currently in the hands of
Tolkien Enterprises, which has no relation to the
Tolkien Estate, which retains film rights to
The Silmarillion and other works.
The first adaptation to be shown was
The Hobbit in 1977, made by
Rankin-Bass studios. This was initially shown on
United States television.
The following year (1978), a movie entitled
The Lord of the Rings was released, produced and directed by
Ralph Bakshi; it was an adaptation of the first half of the story, using
rotoscope animation. Although the film was relatively faithful to the story and a
commercial success, its
critical response (from readers and non-readers alike) was mixed.
In 1980, Rankin-Bass produced a TV special covering roughly the last half of
The Lord of the Rings, called
The Return of the King. However, this did not follow on directly from the end of the Bakshi film.
Plans for a live-action version would wait until the late 1990s to be realized. These were directed by
Peter Jackson and funded by
New Line Cinema with backing from the New Zealand government and banking system.
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
The films were a huge
box office and critical (both reader and non-reader) success and together won seventeen
Oscars (at least one in each applicable category for a fictional,
English language, live-action feature film, except in the acting categories). The films have also helped to increase the impact of Tolkien's works on mainstream
pop culture. However, in adapting the book to film, Jackson and company's changes to the storyline and characters have offended some of its fans, although many are quick to defend them too, stemming from putting the story into a modern context.
Games
The works of Tolkien have been a major influence on
role-playing games along with others such as
Robert E. Howard,
Fritz Leiber,
H. P. Lovecraft, and
Michael Moorcock. Although the most famous game to be inspired partially by the setting was
Dungeons & Dragons, there have been two specifically Middle-earth based and licensed games. These are the
Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game from
Decipher Inc. and the
Middle-earth Role Playing game (MERP) from
Iron Crown Enterprises. A Middle-earth
play-by-mail game was originally run by
Flying Buffalo and is now produced by
Middle-earth Games; this game was inducted into the
Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design's Hall of Fame in 1997.
Simulations Publications created three
war games based on Tolkien's work.
War of the Ring covered most of the events in the
Lord of the Rings trilogy.
Gondor focused on the battle of Pelennor Fields, and
Sauron covered the Second Age battle before the gates of Mordor. A war game based on the
Lord of the Rings movies is currently being produced by
Games Workshop. A
board game also called
War of the Ring is currently published by
Fantasy Flight Games.
The computer game
Angband is a free
roguelike D&D-style game that features many characters from Tolkien's works. The most complete list of Tolkien-inspired computer games can be found at http://www.lysator.liu.se/tolkien-games/
EA Games has released games based on the Jackson movies for the gaming consoles and the PC. These include the platformers
The Two Towers,
The Return of the King, the real-time strategy game
The Battle for Middle-earth, its sequel
The Battle for Middle-earth 2, and the role-playing game
The Third Age Book-based games (officially licensed from
Tolkien Enterprises) include Vivendi's own platformer,
The Fellowship of the Ring, and Sierra's own real-time strategy game,
War of the Ring, both games that proved highly unsuccessful, and the many games based on
The Hobbit.
Turbineis also making the first Middle-earth-based graphical massively multiplayer online roleplaying game (
MMORPG):
Lord of the Rings Online: The Shadows of Angmar, and is planned to be released in 2006.
There are many text-based MMORPGs (known as
MU*s) based on Tolkien's Middle-earth. The oldest of which date back as long as fifteen years (
MUME - Multi Users in Middle Earth). For a (rather long) list of all the Tolkien inspired MU*s go to
The Mud Connector and run a search for 'tolkien'.
Aside from officially licensed games, many Tolkien-inspired
mods and custom maps have been made for many games, such as
Warcraft III and
Rome: Total War. See also
Middle-earth in video games.
A very big mod project is
Adventure Middle Earth for
TES IV: Oblivion.
*
Tolkien Gateway - A wiki with over 5,000 articles surrounding Middle-earth and Tolkien's works.
*
Tolkien News – News source about Tolkien's works.
*
Encyclopedia of Arda – a large online source for the names from Tolkien's works. Many of the entries are incomplete, as it is constantly being updated, and some are incorrect. It has been used as a source.
*
Lord of the Rings Library – another online source for Middle-earth facts.
*
Ardalambion – A site dedicated to the
languages of Middle-earth with an extensive course about
Quenya.
*
The Tolkien Meta-FAQ – Summaries of common discussions about Tolkien and Middle-earth, from basic questions to expert debates.
*
Michael Martinez Tolkien Essays – A large collection of essays on Tolkien and Middle-earth.
*
The Tolkien Wiki – The first wikiweb dedicated to the literary works of
J. R. R. Tolkien. Contains a compendium, book-descriptions, essays,
FAQ, etc.
