Music
Music is a form of human expression in the medium of
time using the
structures of sounds or
tones and
silence. It is expressed in terms of
pitch,
rhythm,
harmony, and
timbre. Music involves complex generative forms in time through the construction of
patterns and
combinations of natural stimuli, principally
sound. As a human activity, music may be used for
artistic or
aesthetic,
communicative,
entertainment, or ceremonial purposes. The
definition of what constitutes music varies according to culture and social context.
The
definition of music as
sound with particular characteristics is taken as a given by
psychoacoustics, and is a common one in
musicology and
performance. There are observable patterns to what is broadly labeled music, and while there are understandable cultural variations, the properties of music are the properties of sound as perceived and processed by humans.
Greek philosophers and medieval theorists defined music as tones ordered horizontally
melodies, and vertically as
harmonies.
Music theory, within this realm, is studied with the presupposition that music is orderly and often pleasant to hear. However, in the 20th century, composers challenged the notion that music had to be pleasant by creating music that explored harsher, darker
timbres. The existence of some modern-day genres such as
death metal and
grindcore, which enjoy an extensive underground following, indicate that even the harshest sounds can be considered music if the listener is so inclined.
20th century composer
John Cage disagreed with the notion that music was pleasant melodies. Instead, he argued that any sounds we can hear can be music, saying, for example, "There is no
noise, only sound,"[
1]. According to musicologist
Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990 p.47-8,55): "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined--which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no
single and
intercultural universal concept defining what music might be."
The composer
Anton Webern stated "With me, things never turn out as I wish, but only as is ordained for me-as I must", which sets out his view of the underlying generative process of music. The German philosopher
Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe believed that patterns and forms were the basis of music; he stated that "architecture is frozen music."
The traditional or classical European
aspects of music often listed are those elements given primacy in European-influenced classical music:
melody,
harmony,
rhythm,
tone color or timbre, and
form. A more comprehensive list is given by stating the aspects of sound:
pitch,
timbre,
loudness, and
duration.
1 These aspects combine to create secondary aspects including
structure,
texture and style. Other commonly included aspects include the spatial location or the movement in space of sounds, gesture, and dance.
Silence has long been considered an aspect of music, ranging from the dramatic pauses in Romantic-era symphonies to the avant-garde use of silence as an artistic statement in 20th century works such as John Cage's
4'33."John Cage considers duration the primary aspect of music because it is the only aspect common to both "sound" and "silence."
As mentioned above, not only do the aspects included as music vary, their importance varies. For instance, melody and harmony are often considered to be given more importance in classical music at the expense of rhythm and timbre. It is often debated whether there are aspects of music that are universal. The debate often hinges on definitions. For instance, the fairly common assertion that "tonality" is universal to all music requires an expansive definition of tonality.
A
pulse is sometimes taken as a universal, yet there exist solo vocal and instrumental genres with free, improvisational rhythms with no regular pulse;
2 one example is the
alap section of a
Hindustani music performance. According to
Dane Harwood, "We must ask whether a cross-cultural musical universal is to be found in the music itself (either its structure or function) or the way in which music is made. By 'music-making,' I intend not only actual performance but also how music is heard, understood, even learned."
3Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace.
Amateur musicians compose and perform music for their own pleasure, and they do not attempt to derive their income from music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organizations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. As well, professional musicians work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.
Although amateur musicians differ from professional musicians in that amateur musicians have a non-musical source of income, there are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles and orchestras. In some rare cases, amateur musicians attain a professional level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional performance settings.
A distinction is often made between music performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is recorded and distributed (or broadcast).
Performance
Someone who performs, composes, or conducts music is a musician. Musicians perform music for a variety of reasons. Some artists express their feelings in music. Performing music is an enjoyable activity for amateur and professional musicians, and it is often done for the benefit of an audience, who is deriving some aesthetic, social, religious, or ceremonial value from the performance. Part of the motivation for professional performers is that they derive their income from making music. As well, music is performed in the context of practicing, as a way of developing musical skills.
Solo and ensemble
Many cultures include strong traditions of
solo or soloistic
performance, such as in
Indian classical music, and in the Western Art music tradition. Other cultures, such as in
Bali, include strong traditions of
group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organized performance rituals such as the modern classical
concert or
religious processions.
Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with no more than one of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than
symphonic works. A performer is called a
musician or singer, and they may be part of a
musical ensemble such as a
rock band or symphony
orchestra.
Oral tradition and notation
Music is often preserved in memory and performance only, handed down
orally, or aurally ("by ear"). When the composer of music is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those which demand
improvisation or modification to the music. In the Gambia, West Africa, the history of the country is passed orally through song.
When music is written down, it is generally notated so that there are instructions regarding what should be heard by listeners, and what the musician should do to perform the music. This is referred to as
musical notation, and the study of how to read notation involves
music theory, harmony, the study of performance practice, and in some cases an understanding of historical performance methods.
Written notation varies with style and period of music. In Western Art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Nonetheless, scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands."
In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature, which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.
Generally music which is to be performed is produced as
sheet music. To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the musical style and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or genre. The detail included explicitly in the music notation varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music notation from the 17th through to the 19th century required performers to have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles.
For example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers typically indicated a simple, unornamented melody. However, it was expected that performers would know how to add stylistically-appropriate ornaments such as trills and turns.
In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without describing in detail how the performer should do this. It was expected that the performer would know how to use tempo changes, accentuation, and pauses (among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style.
In the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit, and used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how they should play or sing the piece. In popular music and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles associated with specific genres and pieces.
For example, the "lead sheet" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the jazz ensemble are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.
Improvisation, interpretation, composition
Most cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material, or
composition, as held in western classical music. Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed
interpretation.
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is given to the performer to engage in
improvisation on a basic melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the performer in a style of performing called
free improvisation, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed,
not preconceived. According to the analysis of Georgiana Costescu, improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some freely chosen material (see
precompositional). Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole authorship of one individual.
Music can also be determined by describing a "process" which may create musical sounds, examples of this range from wind chimes, through computer programs which select sounds. Music which contains elements selected by chance is called
Aleatoric music, and is often associated with
John Cage and
Witold Lutosławski.
Compositions
Musical composition is a term that describes the makeup of a piece of music. Methods of composition vary widely, however in analyzing music all forms are built from elements comprising a musical piece. Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be
improvised; composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely from memory, from a written system of
musical notation, or some combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of
Western classical music, but the definition of
composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of
free jazz performers and
African drummers.
What is important in understanding the composition of a piece is singling out its elements. An understanding of music's
formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is constructed. A universal element of music is how sounds occur in
time, which is referred to as the
rhythm of a piece of music.
When a piece appears to have a changing
time-feel, it is considered to be in
rubato time, an
Italian expression that indicates that the
tempo of the piece changes to suit the expressive intent of the performer. Even random placement of random sounds, which occurs in
musical montage, occurs within some kind of
time, and thus employs
time as a musical element.
|
Concert in the Mozarteum, Salzburg |
The field of
music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners.
Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats.
On the other hand, other types of music such as jazz, blues, soul, and country are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls.
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music. Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomic standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music.
For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a hip-hop concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, hip-hop, punk, or funk may be very complex and sophisticated.
Deaf people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body, a process which can be enhanced if the individual holds a resonant, hollow object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer
Ludwig van Beethoven, who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include
Evelyn Glennie, a highly acclaimed percussionist who has been deaf since the age of twelve, and
Chris Buck, a virtuoso violinist who has lost his hearing.
The music that composers make can be heard through several
media; the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of, the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the
radio,
television or the
internet. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live, often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered "better" than the actual performance.
In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries, listening to music through a recorded form, such as
sound recording or watching a
music video, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century.
Sometimes, live
performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a
DJ uses
disc records for
scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape.
Computers and many
keyboards can be programmed to produce and play
MIDI music. Audiences can also
become the performers by using
Karaoke, invented by the Japanese, which uses music video and tracks without voice, so the performer can add their voice to the piece.
Professional musicians in some cultures and musical genres compose, perform, and improvise music with no formal training. Musical genres where professional musicians are typically self-taught or where they learn through informal mentoring and creative exchanges include blues, punk, and popular music genres such as rock and pop.
Undergraduate university degrees in music, including the
Bachelor of Music, the
Bachelor of Music Education, and the
Bachelor of Arts with a major in music typically take three or four years to complete. These degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and music history, and many students also study an instrument or learn singing technique as part of their program.
Graduates of undergraduate music programs can go on to further study in music graduate programs. Graduate degrees include the
Master of Music, the
Master of Arts, the
PhD, and more recently, the
Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to two years to complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance of an instrument or voice or composition. The Master of Arts degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a thesis, is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history, or music theory.
The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as university professors in musicology, music history, or music theory, takes three to five years of study after the Master's degree, during which time the student will complete advanced courses and undertake research for a dissertation. The Doctor of Musical Arts, or DMA is a relatively new degree that was created to provide a credential for professional performers or composers that want to work as university professors in musical performance or composition. The DMA takes three to five years after a Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects, and performances.
Music as Part of General Education
The incorporation of music training from
preschool to postsecondary education is common in North America and Europe, because involvement in music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration,
counting, listening, and
cooperation while also promoting understanding of
language, improving the ability to
recall information, and creating an environment more conductive to learning in other areas.
4 In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music. In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some type of musical ensembles, such as
choirs,
marching bands,
jazz bands, or
orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be available.
At the
university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music, or a
music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some type of musical ensembles that non-music students are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, or orchestras.
The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as
STSI in
Bali, or the Classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the
music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).
Both amateur and professional musicians typically take
music lessons, short private sessions with an individual teacher. Amateur musicians typically take lessons to learn musical rudiments and beginner- to intermediate-level musical techniques.
Study
Many people also study
about music in the field of
musicology. The earliest definitions of
musicology defined three sub-disciplines:
systematic musicology,
historical musicology, and
comparative musicology. In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into
music theory,
music history, and
ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of
psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called
ethnomusicology.
In
Medieval times, the study of music was one of the
Quadrivium of the seven
Liberal Arts and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative
Quadrivium, music, or more accurately
harmonics, was the study of rational proportions.
Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's
Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Ruwet's
Language, musique, poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that birdsongs are organized according to a repetition-transformation principle. In the opinion of
Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organized and conceptualized (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the
common practice period, or
tonal music. Theory, even that which studies music of the common practice period, may take many other forms.
Musical set theory is the application of mathematical
set theory to music, first applied to
atonal music.
Speculative music theory, contrasted with
analytic music theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example
tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.
The history of music in relation to human beings predates the written word and is tied to the development and unique expression of various human
cultures. Music has influenced man, and vice versa, since the dawn of civilization. The earliest form of musical expression is to be found in the
Sama Veda of India. Popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasized different
instruments, or techniques.
Music history itself is the distinct subfield of
musicology and
history, which studies the chronological development of music, primarily in the Western world. Music has also been used extensively for
propaganda.
As there are many definitions for music there are many divisions and groupings of music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the larger genres are
classical music,
popular music or commercial music (including
rock and roll),
country music and
folk music.
There is often disagreement over what constitutes "real" music: late-period
Beethoven string quartets,
Stravinsky ballet scores,
serialism, bebop-era
Jazz,
rap,
punk rock, and
electronica have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.
The term
world music has been applied to a wide range of music made outside of Europe and European influence, although its initial application, in the context of the World Music Program at
Wesleyan University, was as a term including all possible music genres, including European traditions. (In academic circles, the original term for the study of world music, "comparative musicology", was replaced in the middle of the twentieth century by "ethnomusicology", which is still an unsatisfactory coinage.)
Genres of music are as often determined by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustic and meant to be performed by individuals or groups, many works described as "classical" include samples or tape, or are mechanical. Some works, like
Gershwin's
Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music.
As world cultures have been
in greater contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States
bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the US' multi-ethnic "melting pot" society.
Many current
music festivals celebrate a particular musical
genre.
# Owen, 2000: 6# Johnson, 2002# Harwood, 1976: 522# Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002# Evans, Jacob and Frankie Correno 2006
* Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology",
Ethnomusicology 20, no. 3:521-33.
* Johnson, Julian (2002).
Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195146816.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Piano Improvisation Develops Musicianship."
Orff-Echo XXXVII No. 1 (2004): 11-14.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "The Singing Muse: Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany." Journal of Historical Research in Music Education XXVI no. 1 (2004): 8-27.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Didaktik of Music: A German Concept and its Comparison to American Music Pedagogy." International Journal of Music Education (Practice) 22 No. 3 (2004): 277-286.
* Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "General Music Education in Germany Today: A Look at How Popular Music is Engaging Students." General Music Today 18 no. 2 (Winter 2005): 14-16.
* Molino, Jean (1975). "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique",
Musique en Jeu, no. 17:37-62.
* Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1987).
Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (
Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0691027145.
* Owen, Harold (2000).
Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195115392.
* Woodall, Laura and Brenda Ziembroski, (2002).
Literacy Through Music.
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