Names of God in Judaism
 |
At the bottom of the hands, the two letters on each hand combine to form ×™×"ו×" (YHVH), the name of God. |
In
Judaism, the
name of God is more than a distinguishing title. It represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relation of
God to the
Jewish people. In awe at the
sacredness of the names of God, and as a means of showing respect and reverence for them, the
scribes of
sacred texts took pause before copying them, and used terms of reverence so as to keep the true name of God concealed. The various names of God in Judaism represent God as he is known, as well as the divine aspects which are attributed to him.
The numerous names of God have been a source of debate amongst biblical scholars — some have advanced the variety as proof that the
Torah has many authors (see
documentary hypothesis), while others declare that the different aspects of God have different names, depending on the role God is playing, the context in which he is referred to and the specific aspects which are emphasized (see
Negative theology in Jewish thought).
The Tetragrammaton
 |
An early depiction of the Tetragrammaton - circa 600 B.C.E. Portion of writing on silver scroll with the "Priestly Benediction" (Numbers 6:24-26) |
The most important and most often written name of
God in
Judaism is the
Tetragrammaton, the four-letter name of God. This name is first mentioned in the book of
Genesis and is usually translated as 'the L
ORD'. Because Judaism forbids pronouncing the name outside the Temple, the correct pronunciation of this name has been lost—the original
Hebrew texts only included consonants. Some scholars conjecture that it was pronounced "Yahweh", but some suggest that it never had a pronunciation (which is extremely unlikely given that it is found as an element in numerous Hebrew names). The
Hebrew letters are named
Yod-Heh-Vav-Heh: ×™×"ו×"; note that Hebrew is written from right to left, rather than left to right as in English. In English it is written as YHWH, YHVH, or JHVH depending on the
transliteration convention that is used. The Tetragrammaton was written in contrasting
Paleo-Hebrew characters in some of the oldest surviving square
Aramaic Hebrew texts, and it is speculated that it was, even at that period, read as
Adonai, "My Lord", when encountered.
In appearance, YHWH is the third person singular imperfect of the verb "to be", meaning, therefore, "He is". This explanation agrees with the meaning of the name given in
Exodus 3:14, where God is represented as speaking, and hence as using the first person â€" "I am." It stems from the Hebrew conception of
monotheism that God exists by himself, the uncreated Creator who doesn't depend on anything or anyone else; therefore
I am who I am.
 |
Portion of column 19 of the Psalms Scroll (Tehilim) from Qumran Cave 11. The Tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew can be clearly seen six times in this portion. |
The idea of 'life' has been traditionally connected with the name YHWH from medieval times. God is presented as a living God, as contrasted with the lifeless gods of the heathen: God is presented as the source and author of life (compare
1 Kings 18;
Isaiah 41:26–29, 44:6–20;
Jeremiah 10:10, 14;
Genesis 2:7; and so forth)
The name YHWH is often reconstructed as
Yahweh or often times
Jehovah in the English language. The name Yahweh is likely to be the origin of the
Yao of
Gnosticism. A few also think it might be cognate to
Yaw of
Ugaritic texts. If the Hehs in the Tetragrammaton are seen as sacred augmentation similar to those in
Abraham (from
Abram) and
Sarah (from
Sarai), then the association becomes clearer. Though the final Heh in
Yahweh would not necessarily have been pronounced in classical Hebrew, the medial Heh would have almost certainly been pronounced. Other possible vocalisations include a
mappik in the final Heh, rendering it pronounced — most likely with a gliding
Patah (a-sound) before it.
The prohibition of blasphemy, for which capital punishment is prescribed in Jewish law, refers only to the
Tetragrammaton (Soferim iv., end; comp. Sanh. 66a).
Pronouncing the tetragrammaton
 |
The Tetragrammaton in Phoenician (1100 BC to AD 300), Aramaic (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts. |
All modern denominations of
Judaism teach that the four letter name of God, YHWH, is forbidden to be uttered except by the High Priest, in the Temple. Since the
Temple in Jerusalem no longer exists, this name is never said in religious rituals by Jews. Orthodox and Conservative Jews never pronounce it for any reason. Some religious non-Orthodox Jews are willing to pronounce it, but for educational purposes only, and never in casual conversation or in prayer. Instead of pronouncing YHWH during
prayer, Jews say
Adonai, though passages such as:
"And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto the reapers, YHWH [be] with you. And they answered him, YHWH bless thee" (
Ruth 2:4)
strongly indicate that there was a time when the name was in common usage. Also the fact that many
Hebrew names consist of verb forms
contracted with the tetragrammaton indicates that the people knew the verbalization of the name in order to understand the connection. The prohibition against verbalizing the name never applied to the forms of the name within these contractions (
yeho-,
yo-,
-yahoo,
-yah) and their pronunciation remains known. (These known pronunciations do not in fact match the conjectured pronunciation
yahweh for the stand alone form.)
English translations of the
Bible generally render YHWH as "Jehovah" in several locations, while replacing the name altogether as "the L
ORD" (in small capitals), and
Adonai as "Lord" (in normal case). In a few cases, where "Lord YHWH" appears, the combination is written as "Lord G
OD".
= Hashem
=
Jewish law requires that secondary rules be placed around the primary law, to reduce the chance that the main law will be broken. As such, it is common Jewish practice to restrict the use of the word
Adonai to
prayer only. In conversation, many Jewish people will call God
"Hashem," which is Hebrew for "the Name" (this appears in
Leviticus 24:11). Many Jews extend this prohibition to some of the other names listed below, and will add additional sounds to alter the pronunciation of a name when using it outside of a liturgical context, such as
kel or elo
kim.
While other names of God in Judaism are generally restricted to use in a
liturgical context,
Hashem is used in more casual circumstances.
Hashem is used by Orthodox Jews so as to avoid saying
Adonai outside of a ritual context. For example, when Orthodox Jews make
audio recordings of prayer services, they generally substitute
Hashem for
Adonai.
=Adoshem
=Up until the mid twentieth century, however, another convention was quite common, the use of the word,
Adoshem - combining the first syllable of the word
Adonai with the last syllable of the word
Hashem. This convention was discouraged by Rabbi
David HaLevi Segal (known as the Taz) in his commentary to the
Shulchan Aruch. However, it took a few centuries for the word to fall into almost complete disuse. The rationale behind the Taz's reasoning was that it is disrespectful to combine a Name of God with another word.
Other names of God
Adonai
Jews also call God Adonai, Hebrew for "Lord" (Hebrew: ×Ö²×"Ö¹× Ö¸×™). Formally, this is plural ("my Lords"), but the plural is usually construed as a respectful, and not a
syntactic plural. (The singular form is
Adoni: "my lord". This was used by the Phoenicians for the pagan god
Tammuz and is the origin of the Greek name
Adonis. Jews only use the singular to refer to a distinguished person.)
Alternatively, Adonai and other names of God may be written in the plural form to point out that this one God embodies all of the many gods that were worshipped by the ancestors of the Israelites and concurrently by the surrounding peoples.
Since pronouncing YHWH is considered sinful, Jews use
Adonai instead in prayers, and colloquially would use
Hashem (The Name). When the
Masoretes added vowel pointings to the text of the
Hebrew Bible in the
first century CE, they gave the word YHWH the vowels of
Adonai, to remind the reader to say
Adonai instead.
The Sephardi translators of the
Ferrara Bible go further and susbtitute
Adonai with
A.Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh
The name
Ehyeh (Hebrew: ×Ö¶×"Ö°×™Ö¶×") denotes God's potency in the immediate future, and is part of YHWH. The phrase
"ehyeh-asher-ehyeh" (
Exodus 3:14) is interpreted by some authorities as "I will be because I will be," using the second part as a gloss and referring to God's promise, "Certainly I will be [ehyeh] with thee" (Exodus 3:12). Other authorities claim that the whole phrase forms one name. The
Targum Onkelos leaves the phrase untranslated and is so quoted in the
Talmud (B. B. 73a). The "I am that I am" of the
Authorized Version is based on this view.
I am that I am (Hebrew: ××"×™×" ×שר ××"×™×", pronounced 'Ehyeh asher ehyeh) is the sole response used in (Exodus 3:14) when Moses asked for God's name. It is one of the most famous verses in the Hebrew Bible. Hayah
means "existed" or "was" in Hebrew; ehyeh
is the first-person singular imperfect form. Ehyeh asher ehyeh
is generally interpreted to mean "I will be what I will be", I shall be what I shall be
or I am that I am
(King James Bible and others). The Tetragrammaton itself may derive from the same verbal root.
El
Main article: El (god)
The word
El appears in other northwest Semitic languages such as Phoenician and Aramaic. In Akkadian, ilu
is the ordinary word for god. It is also found also in Old South Arabian and in Ethiopic, and, as in Hebrew, it is often used as an element in proper names. In northwest Semitic texts it often appears to be used of one single god, perhaps the head of the pantheon, sometimes specifically said to be the creator.
El
(Hebrew: ×ל) is used in both the singular and plural, both for other gods and for the God of Israel. As a name of God, however, it is used chiefly in poetry and prophetic discourse, rarely in prose, and then usually with some epithet attached, as "a jealous God." Other examples of its use with some attribute or epithet are: El
`Elyon ("Most High God"), El Shaddai
("God Almighty"), El `Olam
("Everlasting God"), El Hai
("Living God"), El Ro'i
("God of Seeing"), El Elohe Israel
("God, the God of Israel"), El Gibbor
("God of Strength"). In addition, names such as Gabriel ("Strength of God"), Michael ("He Who is Like God"), Raphael ("God´s medicine") and Daniel ("God is My Judge") use God's name in a similar fashion.
Elohim
Main article: Elohim
A common name of God in the
Hebrew Bible is
Elohim (Hebrew: ×ל×"×™×); as opposed to other names mentioned in this article, this name also describes gods of other religions.
Despite the -im
ending common to many plural nouns in Hebrew, the word Elohim
, when referring to God is grammatically singular, and regularly takes a singular verb in the Hebrew Bible. It is argued that the word elohim
had an origin in a plural grammatical form. When the Hebrew Bible uses elohim
not in reference to God, it usually takes plural forms of the verb (for example, Exodus 20:3). There are a few other such uses in Hebrew, for example Behemoth. In Modern Hebrew, the singular word be'alim
("owner") looks plural, but likewise takes a singular verb.
Other scholars interpret the -im
ending as an expression of majesty (pluralis majestatis
) or excellence (pluralis excellentiae
), expressing high dignity or greatness: compare with the similar use of plurals of ba`al
(master) and adon
(lord). For these reasons many Christians cite the apparent plurality of elohim
as evidence for the basic Christian doctrine of the Trinity. This was a traditional position but modern Christian theologians now largely accept that this is an exegetical fallacy.
Theologians who dispute this claim, cite the hypothesis that plurals of majesty came about in more modern times. Richard Toporoski, a classics scholar, asserts that plurals of majesty first appeared in the reign of Diocletian (284-305 CE)1. Indeed, Gesenius states in his book Hebrew Grammar''
2 the following:
The Jewish grammarians call such plurals … plur. virium or virtutum; later grammarians call them plur. excellentiae, magnitudinis, or plur. maiestaticus.This last name may have been suggested by the we used by kings when speaking of themselves (compare 1 Maccabees 10:19 and 11:31); and the plural used by God in Genesis 1:26 and 11:7; Isaiah 6:8 has been incorrectly explained in this way). It is, however, either communicative (including the attendant angels: so at all events in Isaiah 6:8 and Genesis 3:22), or according to others, an indication of the fullness of power and might implied. It is best explained as a plural of self-deliberation. The use of the plural as a form of respectful address is quite foreign to Hebrew.
The plural form ending in
-im can also be understood as denoting abstraction, as in the Hebrew words
chayyim: "life" or
betulim: "virginity". If understood this way
Elohim means "divinity" or "deity". The word
chayyim is similarly syntactically singular when used as a name but syntactically plural otherwise.
The Hebrew form
Eloah (×לו×", which looks as though it might be a singular form of
Elohim) is comparatively rare, occurring only in poetry and late prose (in the
Book of Job, 41 times). What is probably the same divine name is found in
Arabic (
Ilah as singular "a god", as opposed to
Allah meaning "The God" or "God") and in
Aramaic (
Elaha). This unusual singular form is used in six places for heathen deities (examples:
2 Chronicles 32:15;
Daniel 11:37, 38;). The normal
Elohim form is also used in the plural a few times, either for gods or images (
Exodus 9:1, 12:12, 20:3; and so forth) or for one god (
Exodus 32:1;
Genesis 31:30, 32; and elsewhere). In the great majority of cases both are used as names of the one God of Israel.
The root-meaning of the word is unknown. One theory is that it may be connected with the old Arabic verb
alih (to be perplexed, afraid; to seek refuge because of fear).
Eloah,
Elohim, would, therefore, be "He who is the object of fear or reverence," or "He with whom one who is afraid takes refuge."In many of the passages in which
Elohim occurs in the Bible it refers to non-Israelite deities, or in some instances to powerful men or judges (Exodus 21:6).
1R. Toporoski, "What was the origin of the royal "we" and why is it no longer used?", (Times of London, May 29, 2002. Ed. F1, p. 32)
2Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (A. E. Cowley, ed., Oxford, 1976, p.398)
`Elyon
Main article: Elyon
The name
`Elyon (Hebrew: עליון) occurs in combination with
El, YHWH or
Elohim, and also alone. It appears chiefly in poetic and later Biblical passages. The modern Hebrew adjective "`Elyon" means "supreme" (as in "Supreme Court") or "Most High".
El Elyon has been traditionally translated into English as 'God Most High'. The
Phoenicians used what appears to be a similar name for God, Έλιον. It is cognate to the Arabic
`Aliyy.
Shaddai
The name
Shaddai (Hebrew: שַ××"Ö·Ö¼×™), which occurs both independently and in combination with
El, is used as a name of God chiefly in the
Book of Job. According to Exodus 6:2, 3, this is the name by which God was known to
Abraham,
Isaac, and
Jacob. In the
Septuagint and other early translation it was translated with words meaning 'Almighty'.
The root word "shadad" (ש×"×") means "to overpower" or "to destroy". This would give Shaddai the meaning of "destroyer" as one of the aspects of God. Compare to "
Shiva," the destroyer in the Hindu trinity, "creator, preserver, destroyer".
Another theory is that 'Shaddai' is a derivation of a
Semitic stem that appears in the
Akkadian shadû, 'mountain', and
shaddÄ`û or
shaddû`a, 'mountain-dweller'. This theory was popularized by
W. F. Albright but was somewhat weakened when it was noticed that the doubling of the medial
d is first documented only in the
Neo-Assyrian period. However, the doubling in Hebrew might possibly be secondary. In this theory God is seen as inhabiting a mythical holy mountain: a concept not unknown in ancient near eastern mythology (see
El), and also evident in the
Syriac Christian writings of
Ephrem the Syrian, who places
Eden on an inaccessible mountaintop.
An alternative view proposed by Albright is that the name is connected to
shadayim which means breasts in Hebrew. It may thus be connected to the notion of God's fertility and blessings of the human race. In several instances it is connected with fruitfulness: "May God Almighty [El Shaddai] bless you and make you fruitful and increase your numbers . . ." (Gen. 28:3). "I am God Almighty [El Shaddai]: be fruitful and increase in number" (Gen. 35:11). "By the Almighty [El Shaddai] who will bless you with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that lies beneath, blessings of the breasts [shadayim] and of the womb [racham] " (Gen. 49:25).
It is also given a
Midrashic interpretation as an acronym standing for 'Guardian of the Doors of Israel' (Hebrew:
ש×וֹמֶר
×"ְלָתוֹת
יִשְׂרָ×ֶל), which is commonly found as carvings or writings upon the
Mezuzah, a vessel which houses a scroll of parchment with Biblical text written on it, that is situated upon all the doorframes in a home or establishment.
Shaddai was also a late Bronze age,
Amorite city on the banks of the
Euphrates river, in northern
Syria. The site of its ruin-mound is called
Tell eth-Thadyen: "Thadyen" being the modern
Arabic rendering of the original West
Semitic "Shaddai." It has been conjectured that
El Shaddai was therefore the "god of Shaddai" and associated in tradition with
Abraham, and the inclusion of the Abraham stories into the
Hebrew Bible may have brought the northern name with them. (See
Documentary hypothesis.)
Shalom
Shalom ("Peace"; Hebrew: שלו×)
The
Talmud says "the name of God is 'Peace'" (
Pereḳ ha-Shalom, Shab. 10b), (
Judges 6:23); consequently, one is not permitted to greet another with the word
shalom in unholy places such as a bathroom (
Talmud,
Shabbat, 10b). The name
Sh'lomo literally His peace (from
shalom,
Solomon, שלומו) refers to the God of Peace. Shalom in Hebrew also can mean "hello" and "goodbye."
Shekhinah
Shekhinah (Hebrew: ×©×›×™× ×") is the presence or manifestation of God which has descended to "dwell" among humanity. The term never appears in the
Hebrew Bible; later rabbis used the word when speaking of God dwelling either in the
Tabernacle or amongst the people of Israel. The root of the word means "dwelling". Of the principal names of God, it is the only one that is of the feminine gender in Hebrew grammar.
Yah
The name
Yah is composed of the first letters of YHWH. The
Rastafarian
Jah is derived from this.
YHWH Tzevaot/Sabaoth
The names
YHWH and
Elohim frequently occur with the word
tzevaot or
sabaoth ("hosts" or "armies", Hebrew: צב×ות) as
YHWH Elohe Tzevaot ("YHWH God of Hosts"),
Elohe Tzevaot ("God of Hosts"),
Adonai YHWH Tzevaot ("Lord YHWH of Hosts") or, most frequently,
YHWH Tzevaot ("YHVH of Hosts"). This name is traditionally transliterated in Latin as
Sabaoth, a form that will be more familiar to many English readers, as it was used in the
King James Version of the Bible.
This compound divine name occurs chiefly in the prophetic literature and does not appear at all in the
Pentateuch,
Joshua or
Judges. The original meaning of
tzevaot may be found in
1 Samuel 17:45, where it is interpreted as denoting "the God of the armies of Israel". The word, apart from this special use, always means armies or hosts of men, as, for example, in
Exodus 6:26, 7:4, 12:41, while the singular is used to designate the heavenly host.
The Latin spelling
Sabaoth combined with the large, golden vine motif over the door on the Herodian Temple (built by the Jewish
Herod the Great) led to identification by
Romans with the god
Sabazius.
The name
Sabaoth is also associated with a demi-god in the gnostic scriptures of the Nag Hammadi Text; he is the son of Yaltabaoth.
Lesser used names of God
*
Abir — "Strong One".
*
Adon Olam — "Master of the Universe".
*
Avinu Malkeinu — "Our Father, our King".
*
Boreh — "the Creator".
*
Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh — "I Am That I Am": a modern Hebrew version of "Ehyeh asher Ehyeh".
Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak ve Elohei Ya`aqov — "God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob".
*
El ha-Gibbor — "God the hero" or "God the strong one".
*
Emet — "Truth".
*
E'in Sof — "endless, infinite", Kabbalistic name of God.
*
Ro'eh Yisrael — "Shepherd of Israel".
*
Ha-Kaddosh, Baruch Hu — "The Holy One, Blessed be He".
*
Kaddosh Israel — "Holy One of Israel".
*
Melech ha-Melachim — "The King of Kings".
*
Makom — literally "the place", meaning "The Omnipresent"; see
Tzimtzum.
*
Magen Avraham — "Shield of Abraham".
*
YHWH-Yireh (Yahweh-Yireh) — "The Lord will provide" (
Genesis 22:13, 14).
*
YHWH-Rapha" — "The Lord that healeth" (Exodus 15:26).
* YHWH-Niss"i (Yahweh-Nissi) — "The Lord our Banner" (Exodus 17:8-15).
*
YHWH-Shalom — "The Lord our Peace" (
Judges 6:24).
*
YHWH-Ra-ah — "The Lord my Shepherd" (
Psalms 23:1).
YHWH-Tsidkenu — "The Lord our Righteousness" (
Jeremiah 23:6).
YHWH-Shammah — "The Lord is present" (
Ezekiel 48:35).
*
Tzur Israel — "Rock of Israel".
*
Ha Shem — "The Name"
In the
Haggadah (the traditional Hebrew
Passover text) it is written that the divine names of God could be used to perform miracles if one knew their combination.
Kabbalistic use
The system of cosmology of the
Kabbalah explains the significance of the names. One of the most important names is that of the En Sof ×ין סוף ("Infinite" or "Endless"), who is above the
Sefirot.
The forty-two-lettered name contains the combined names ××"×™×" ×™×"ו×" ××"×•× ×™ ×"וי×", that when spelled in letters it contains
42 letters. The equivalent in value of YHWH (spelled ×"× ×™×•×" ×"× ×•×• = 45) is the forty-five-lettered name.
The seventy-two-lettered name is based from three verses in
Exodus 14:19-21) beginning with "Vayyissa," "Vayyabo," "Vayyet," respectively. Each of the verses contains 72 letters, and when combined they form 72 names.
The
kabbalistic book
Sefer Yetzirah, explains that the creation of the world was achieved by the manipulation of the sacred letters that form the names of God. Much in the same way, a
golem is created using all permutations of God's name.
|
The Psalms in Hebrew and Latin. Manuscript on parchment, 12th century. |
According to Jewish tradition, the sacredness of the divine names must be recognized by the professional scribe who writes the Scriptures, or the chapters for the
tefillin and the
mezuzah. Before transcribing any of the divine names he prepares mentally to sanctify them. Once he begins a name he does not stop until it is finished, and he must not be interrupted while writing it, even to greet a king. If an error is made in writing it, it may not be erased, but a line must be drawn round it to show that it is canceled, and the whole page must be put in a
genizah (burial place for scripture) and a new page begun.
The tradition of seven divine names
According to Jewish tradition, the number of divine names that require the scribe's special care is seven:
El,
Elohim,
Adonai,
YHWH,
Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh,
Shaddai, and
Tzevaot.
However, Rabbi Jose considered
Tzevaot a common name (Soferim 4:1; Yer. R. H. 1:1; Ab. R. N. 34). Rabbi Ishmael held that even
Elohim is common (Sanh. 66a). All other names, such as 'Merciful', 'Gracious', and 'Faithful', merely represent attributes that are common also to human beings (Sheb. 35a).
Many Jews do not actually ever write God's name on paper or say it, this is to sanctify his name and not to come to desecrate God's name. In many Jewish communities one would say Hashem instead of God's name. It has been the tradition of many Jews including
Chabad to write Gâ€"d or Lâ€"rd instead of actually spelling the name out, as can be seen on their
official website Chabad.org.
*
Alaha*
Baal Shem*
Names given to the divine*
99 Names of God*
Names of God*
Ten Commandments, the third of which is variously "Do not take the name of the Lord your God in vain" or "You shalt not swear falsely by the name of the Lord"Compare with
99 Names of God which are said to be the names of God revealed to man in
Islam's
Qur'an.
*Driver, S.R.,
Recent Theories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton, Studia Biblica vol. i, Oxford, (1885)
*Mansoor, Menahem,
The Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids: Baker, (1983)
*W. F. Albright,
The Names Shaddai and Abram". Journal of Biblical Literature, 54 (1935): 173â€"210
*
A Discussion of the pronunciation of YHWH, including a new theory that explains all theophoric elements*
God's names in Jewish thought and in the light of Kabbalah*
Explanation on why not to spell out God's name.*
The Name of God as Revealed in Exodus 3:14 - an explanation of its meaning.*Harris Laird, Archer, Gleason Jr. and Waltke, Bruce K. (eds.)
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, 2 vol.,, Moody Press, Chicago, 1980.
*Hoffman, Joel M.
In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language, NYU Press (2004). ISBN 0814736904.
*Joffe, Laura,
The Elohistic Pslater: What, How and why?, Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, vol 15-1, pp. 142-169 Taylor & Francis AS, part of the Taylor & Francis Group., June 2001.
*Kearney, Richard,
The God Who May be: A Hermeneutics of Religion, Modern Theology, January 2002, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 75-85(11)
*Kretzmann, Paul E.,
Popular Commentary of the Bible, The Old Testament, Vol. 1. Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, Mo. 1923.
*Shaller, John,
The Hidden God, The Wauwatosa Theology, vol. 2, pp. 169-187, Northwestern Publishing House, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1997.
*Stern, David.
Jewish New Testament Commentary, Jewish New Testament Publications, Inc., Clarkville, Maryland, 1996.
*Strong, James,
The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, New York and Nashville, 1890.
*Tov, E.,
Copying a Biblical Scroll, Journal of Religious History, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 189-209(21), Blackwell Publishing, June 2001
*Vriezen, Th. C.,
The Religion of Ancient Israel, The Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1967.
