Napalm
 |
A 'Napalm' airstrike in Vietnam. The bomb would contain a mix of Napalm-B and gasoline |
Napalm is any of a number of
flammable liquids used in
warfare, often jellied
gasoline. Napalm is actually the
thickener in such liquids, which when mixed with gasoline makes a sticky incendiary gel. It was developed by the U.S. in
World War II by a team of
Harvard chemists led by
Louis Fieser, and the name comes from the use of the original chemicals, coprecipitated
aluminium salts of
naphthenic and
palmiticacids, which were added to the flammable substance
gasoline to cause it to gel. [
1]
One of the major problems of early incendiary fluids (such as those used in
flamethrowers) was that it splashed and drained too easily. The U.S. found that a gasoline gel increased both the range and effectiveness of
flamethrowers, but was difficult to manufacture because it used natural rubber, which was in high demand and expensive. Napalm provided a far cheaper alternative, solving the issues involved with rubber-based incendiaries. [
2]
Modern napalm is composed primarily of benzene and polystyrene and is known as
Napalm-B. [
3]
Napalm was used in
flamethrowers and
bombs by the U.S. and Allied forces, to increase effectiveness of flammable liquids. The substance is formulated to burn at a specific rate and adhere to materials. Napalm is mixed with gasoline in various proportions to achieve this. Another useful (and dangerous) effect, primarily involving its use in bombs, was that Napalm "rapidly deoxygenates the available air" as well as creating large amounts of
Carbon monoxide. Napalm bombs were also used in the
Vietnam War to clear
landing zones for helicopters. [
4]
Though Napalm was a 20th century invention, it is part of a long history of incendiary materials in warfare. However, it was primarily liquids that were used (see
Greek fire). An infantry-based flammable liquid fuel weapon, the
flamethrower, was introduced in
World War I by the Germans, variations of which were soon developed by other sides. [
5]
 |
Riverboat of the U.S. Brownwater Navy deploying an ignited napalm mixture from riverboat mounted flamethrower in Vietnam |
On July 17, 1944 napalm incendiary bombs were dropped for the first time by American
P-38 pilots on a fuel depot at
Coutances, near
St. Lô, France.
[http://www.gruntonline.com/US_Forces/US_Artillery/arty13d.htm] Napalm bombs were first used in the Pacific Theatre during the
Battle of Tinian. In World War II, Allied Forces
bombed cities in
Japan with napalm, and used it in bombs and flamethrowers in Germany and the Japanese-held islands. It was used by the
Greek army against communist
guerrilla fighters during the
Greek Civil War, by
United Nations forces in
Korea, by
Mexico in the late 1960s against guerrilla fighters in
Guerrero and by the
United States during the
Vietnam War.
Napalm has been used recently in wartime by or against:
Iran (1980â€"88),
Israel (1967, 1982),
Nigeria (1969),
Brazil (1972),
Egypt (1973),
Cyprus (1974),
Argentina (1982),
Iraq (1980â€"88, 1991,2003-2006),
Serbia (1994),
Turkey (1974, 1997),
Angola,
United States.
In some cases, Napalm does not cause physical pain because it incapacitates and kills its victims very quickly. Those who do survive suffer 3rd degree burns, damaging the vascular dermis, which does not have pain receptors. However, victims who suffer 2nd degree burns from splashed napalm will be in significant amounts of pain.[
6]
"Napalm is the most terrible pain you can imagine," said Kim Phuc, known from a famous Vietnam War photograph. "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Napalm generates temperatures of 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius."[http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/PopTopics/chrono1.htm]
Phuc sustained third-degree burns to half her body and was not expected to live. But thanks to assistance from South Vietnamese photographer
Nick Ut, and after surviving a 14-month hospital stay and 17 operations, she became an outspoken
peace activist.
International law does not prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets
[http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm], but use against civilian populations was banned by a
United Nations convention in
1980 [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/incendiary-legal.htm]. The
United States did not sign the agreement, but destroyed its napalm arsenal by
2001.
The United States had been accused by the Australian
Sydney Morning Herald of using
napalm in the
Iraq War [http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH790.txt]. This was denied by the U.S. DOD. In August 2003, the San Diego Union Tribune alleged that U.S. Marine pilots and their commanders confirmed the use of
Mark 77 firebombs on
Iraqi Republican Guards during the initial stages of combat. The only Mk 77 bomb remaining in service at this time was the Mk 77 Mod 5, which does not use actual napalm (e.g. napalm-b), but a different incendiary mixture. The last U.S. bomb to use actual napalm was the Mark 77 Mod 4, the last of which were destroyed in March 2001.[
7]
"We napalmed both those [bridge] approaches," said Colonel James Alles, commander of Marine Air Group 11. "Unfortunately there were people there ... you could see them in the cockpit video. They were Iraqi soldiers. It's no great way to die. The generals love napalm. It has a big psychological effect." [http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/military/20030805-9999_1n5bomb.html]
These bombs did not actually contain napalm. The Napalm B (Super Napalm) used in Vietnam was gasoline based. The Mk-77 firebombs used in the Gulf were
kerosene based. It is, however, a napalm-like liquid in its effect. [
8]
Recipes for napalm type substances are commonly circulated on the
Internet. These typically purport to produce a thickened gasoline-based substance using
soap or polystyrene as a
thickening agent (very similar to the napalm of the Vietnam War). The methods described for producing such a substance are often dangerous, as is its use (due to flammability, adhesiveness, and poisonous fumes from burning polystyrene). It is also illegal for civilians to produce incendiary weapons in most countries.
Napalm is usually a mixture of
gasoline with suitable
thickening agents. The earliest thickeners were
soaps, aluminium and magnesium
palmitates and
stearates. According to amount of added thickener, the resulting
viscosity may range between syrupy liquid and thick rubbery gel. The content of long hydrocarbon chains makes the material highly
hydrophobic, resistant to wetting with water, making it more difficult to extinguish. Thickened fuel also rebounds better from surfaces, making it more useful for operations in urban terrain.
There are two types of napalm: oil-based with aluminium soap thickener, and oil-based with polymeric thickener ("Napalm B").
The United States military uses three kinds of thickeners, M1, M2, and M4.
* The
M1 Thickener (Mil-t-589a), chemically a mixture of 25% wt. aluminium
naphtenate, 25% aluminium
oleate, and 50% aluminium
laurate, (or, according to other sources, aluminium
stearate soap) is a highly
hygroscopic coarse tan-colored powder. As the water content impairs the quality of napalm, thickener from partially used open containers should not be used later. It is not maintained in the US Army inventory anymore as it was replaced with M4.
* The
M2 Thickener (Mil-t-0903025b) is a whitish powder similar to M1, with added devolatilized
silica and anticaking agent.
* The
M4 Thickener (Mil-t-50009a), hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate) with anti-caking agent, is a fine white powder. It is less hygroscopic than M1 and opened containers can be resealed and used within one day. About half the amount of M4 is needed for the same effect as of M1.
A later variant,
Napalm B, also called
super napalm, is a mixture of low-octane
gasoline with
benzene and
polystyrene. It was used in the
Vietnam War. Unlike conventional napalm, which burns for only 15-30 seconds, napalm B burns for up to 10 minutes with fewer fireballs, sticks better to surfaces, and offers improved destruction effects. It is not as easy to ignite, which reduces the number of accidents caused by smoking soldiers. When it burns, it develops a characteristic smell.
Starting in the early 90's, various websites including
The Anarchist Cookbook advertized recipes for home made napalm. These recipes were predominantly equal parts gasoline and
styrofoam. This mixture closely resembles that of Napalm B, but lacks a percentage of benzene.
Napalm reaches burning temperatures of approx. 1200 °C. Other additives can be added, eg. powdered
aluminium or
magnesium, or
white phosphorus.
*In the film
Fight Club, the screenwriters were originally going to have Tyler Durden (played by
Brad Pitt) recite a working recipe for napalm. However, after questions of safety were brought to the attention of the producers, they substituted his lines with a fake recipe claiming it to be equal parts of
gasoline and
orange juice concentrate. Contrary to popular belief, the original recipes in
the book were also modified by its publisher. The book's altered recipes claim that, in addition to orange juice, mixing equal parts gasoline and
diet cola, or thickening gasoline with
cat litter, will work.
*In the film
Apocalypse Now, Colonel Kilgore (
Robert Duvall) famously declares "I love the smell of napalm in the morning...It smells like...victory."
*Calvin's favorite comic book
superhero (and a character he wants to become) is Captain Napalm. To add an aspect of
irony (especially when considered with the usage of napalm in
Apocalypse Now), the tagline for Captain Napalm is "Defender of the American Way".
*In the film
An Officer and a Gentleman, Sgt. Foley (
Louis Gossett, Jr.) leads a quick-step march with a
cadence call that has the chorus, "And napalm sticks to kids!"
*The game
Mega Man 5 features a boss named
Napalm Man who resembles a walking tank and can launch rockets and small explosives. His level is designed like a jungle, similar to that of Vietnam. The games
Mega Man Battle Network 2 and
Mega Man Battle Network 5 features a similar boss named
NapalmMan. The anime
Megaman NT Warrior also has the character, although renamed "Moltanicman" in the english dub.
*A level of
Marathon, a first-person shooter created by
Bungie Studios in the 1990s is named "Smells Like Napalm, Tastes Like Chicken".
*In the early 50's,
Norway developed its own napalm, based on fatty acids in
whale oil. The reason for this development was that the American-produced thickening agent performed rather poorly in the cold Norwegian climate. The product was known as Northick II.
[http://www.norwaves.com/norwaves/Volume5_1997/v5nw43.html]*In the "Deep Dungeon" area of the video game
Final Fantasy Tactics, there is a floor named "Mlapan," the name of the substance spelled backwards. Similarly, another floor is named "Nogias," the reversed name of a Vietnamese city,
Saigon, suggesting a Vietnam War theme.
*
Canada and the Vietnam War - Military assistance
*
Greek fire*
Vietnam War
