Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism () is a form of
Confucianism that was primarily developed during the
Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to
Han Yu and
Li Ao in the
Tang Dynasty. The term should not be mistaken for
New Confucianism which is an effort to apply Confucianism to the
21st century.
Neo-Confucianism was a response by the Confucians to the dominance of the
Taoists and
Buddhists. Neo-Confucians such as
Zhu Xi recognized that the Confucian system of the time did not include a thoroughgoing
metaphysical system and so devised one. There were many competing views within the Neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Taoist thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the
Book of Changes (I Ching) as well as other
yin yang theories associated with the
Taiji symbol (
Taijitu). A well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of
Confucius,
Buddha, and
Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the
slogan "The three teachings are one!"
While Neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many Neo-Confucianists claimed to strongly oppose Buddhism and Taoism. One of
Han Yu's most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist
relics.
Zhu Xi in particular, wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist, and included some extremely heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism.
Zhu Xi's formulation of the Neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that the Way (
Tao) of Heaven (
Tian) is expressed in principle or
li (理,
py lǐ), but that it is sheathed in matter or
qi (氣,
py qì). In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and shi (事,
Pinyin shì). In the Neo-Confucian formulation,
li in itself is pure and perfect, but with the addition of
qi, base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the Neo-Confucians argued (following
Mencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one's
li. However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, Neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea of
karma.
Different Neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed in
gewu (格物, géwù), the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea that
li lies within the world.
Wang Yangming (Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential Neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that if
li is in all things, and
li is in one's heart, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so was
jingzuo (靜坐, jìngzuò), 'quiet sitting', a practice that strongly resembles
zuochan or
Chan (
Zen)
meditation.
The importance of
li in Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its name, literally "The study of Li."
Neo-Confucianism became the accepted state philosophy by the
Ming, and continued in this way through the
Qing dynasty and, in some ways, up to modernity. Many classical studies associated with Chinese culture "
music,
theatre,
art,
traditional Chinese medicine,
martial arts such as
Taijiquan " as well as the traditional teaching methods (
pedagogy) of such disciplines " have strong foundations in Neo-Confucian
ethics.
However, in the 19th century there was a reaction against Neo-Confucianism. This view was called the Evidential School or Han Learning and argued that Neo-Confucianism had caused the teachings of Confucianism to be hopelessly contaminated with Buddhist thinking. This school also criticized Neo-Confucianism for being detached from reality with empty philosophical speculation that was unconnected with reality.
In the 20th century, the
May Fourth movement,
Communism and other political modernizing movements tried to eradicate the cultural influence of Confucianism in China, and initially managed to repress its public expression with some degree of success, yet the recent liberalizations on the Mainland have led to some reassertion of its place in Chinese daily life. It also continues to hold a strong influence with
overseas Chinese and in
Taiwan. Neo-Confucianism also arguably lives on in many aspects of Chinese life, such as reverence for one's elders and the examination system.
The Confucian canon as it exists today was essentially compiled by
Zhu Xi. Zhu codified the canon of
Four Books (
The Great Learning,
Doctrine of the Mean,
The Analects of Confucius, and
Mencius) which in the subsequent
Ming and
Qing Dynasties were made the core of the official curriculum for the
civil service examinations.
China
*
Ouyang Xiu (1007"1072)
*
Shao Yong (1012"1077) is an autodidact interested in
numerology that refused political career and left a book of poems and a treatise on cosmogony, the
Huangji jingshi shu. He studied mostly the
Book of Changes and Zhu Xi, while he disliked Shao's links with Taoist monks, drew his inspiration from this book.
*
Zhou Dunyi (1017"1073)
*
Zhang Zai (1020"1078)
*
Su Shi, aka
Su Dongpo (1037"1101)
*
Su Che (1039"1112), Su Shi's brother.
*
Sun Lutang* Cheng Yi
*
Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi's brother.
*
Zhu Xi (1130"1200)
*
Lu Xiangshan aka
Lu Jiuyuan (1139"1193)
*
Zhang Sanfeng*
Wang Yangming aka
Wang ShourenKorea
*
Yi Saek (
李穡, 1328"1396)
*
Jo Inok (
趙仁沃, died 1396)
*
Jeong Mongju (
鄭夢周, 1337"1392)
*
Gang Hoebaek (
姜淮伯, 1357"1402)
*
Heo Eung (
許應, died 1411)
*
Jeong Chong (
鄭摠, 1358"1397),
*
Jeong Dojeon (
鄭"傳, 1348"1398)
*
Jo Gwangjo (
趙光祖, 1482"1519)
*
Yi Hwang (
李滉, 1501"1570)
*
Yi I (
李珥, 1536"1584)
Japan
*
Fujiwara Seika (1561"1619)
*
Hayashi Razan (1583"1657)
*
Nakai Tōju (1608"1648)
*
Yamazaki Ansai (1619"1682)
*
Kumazawa Banzan (1619"1691)
*
Kinoshita Jun'an (1621"1698)
*
Yamaga Sokō (1622"1685)
*
Itō Jinsai (1627"1705)
*
Kaibara Ekken (aka Ekiken) (1630"1714)
*
Satō Naokata (1650?"1719)
*
Asami Keisai (1652"1712)
*
Arai Hakuseki (1657"1725)
*
Muro Kyūsō (1658"1734)
*
Miyake Sekian (1665"1730)
*
Ogyū Sorai (1666"1728)
*
Amenomori Hōshū (1668"1755)
*
Itō Tōgai (1670"1736)
*
Matsumiya Kanzan (1686"1780)
*
Goi Ranshū (1697"1762)
*
Nakai Chikuzan (1730"1804)
*
Ōshio Heihachirō (1793"1837)
*
Yamada Hōkoku (1805"1877)
