Oceanography
Oceanography (from
Ocean +
Greek γράφειν = write), also called
oceanology or
marine science is the study of the
Earth's
oceans and
seas. Oceanographers study a wide range of topics such as
plate tectonics to
ocean currents to marine organisms. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to help us understand Earth's interdependencies:
biology,
chemistry,
geology,
meteorology and
physics.
The study of oceanography has five main branches:
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Marine biology or
biological oceanography, the study of the plants and animals (
biota) of the oceans and their
ecological interaction;
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Chemical oceanography, the study of the
chemistry of the ocean;
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Marine geology or
geological oceanography, the study of the
geology of the ocean floor including
plate tectonics;
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Meteorologic oceanography, studies interactions between our
atmosphere and the ocean's
hydrosphere; and
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Physical oceanography, the study of the ocean's physical attributes (such as its temperature-salinity structure,
waves,
tides and
currents).
These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the
exact sciences and then focus on applying their
interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.
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Ocean currents (1911) |
Early exploration of the oceans was limited to its surfaces and the few creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, but when
Bougainville and
Cook carried out their explorations in the
South Pacific, the seas themselves formed part of the reports.
James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the
Atlantic and
Indian oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in
1840, and
Charles Darwin published a paper on
reefs and the formation of
atolls.
The steep slope beyond the
continental shelves was not discovered until 1849.
Matthew Fontaine Maury's
Physical Geography of the Sea,
1855 was the first textbook of oceanography. The 1st successful laying of
Transatlantic telegraph cable (August 1858) due to the work of Lieutenant M F Maury confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau"
mid-ocean ridge.
After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans.
Oceanography began as a quantifiable
science in
1872, when the
Scots Charles Wyville Thompson and
John Murray launched the
Challenger expedition (1872-76). Other
European and
American nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions).
Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the
United States, these included the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at
Columbia University, and the
School of Oceanography at
University of Washington. In
Britain, there is a major research institution:
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton.
The first international organization of oceanography was created in
1901 as the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.
In
1921 Monaco formed the
International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). Then in
1966, the
U.S. Congress created a
National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development.
NOAA was in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography. It also enabled the
National Science Foundation to award
Sea Grant College funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography.
The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding
global warming and other global environmental concerns.
''Our planet is invested with two great oceans;
one visible, the other invisible; one underfoot, the other overhead; one entirely envelopes it, the other covers about two thirds of its surface.'':
Matthew F. Maury (1855)
The Physical Geography of the Seas and Its Meteorology.
*
Robert Ballard (
ONR Science Explorer)
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VADM W. W. Behrens, Jr. (
NOAA)
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Henry Bryant Bigelow*
RADM Richard E. Byrd *
Jacques Cousteau *
Robert S. Dietz*
V. Walfrid Ekman*
Evan Forde*
Gotthilf Hempel*
RADM Grace Murray Hopper USNR*
Charles David Keeling*
Uwe Kils*
Sir James Lovelock (
NASA Biosphere)
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Matthew Fontaine Maury (
US Naval Observatory)
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Walter Munk*
Tad Murty*
Stefan Rahmstorf*
Johan Sandström*
Yuly Shokalsky*
RADM Charles Dwight Sigsbee (
Hydographer)
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Henry Stommel*
Harald Sverdrup*
Mary Sears*
Warren White*
Climate change*
Environmental planning*
List of Oceanic basins*
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration*
National Ocean Sciences Bowl*
Ocean colonization*
Oceanographic Museum - Monaco
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Sea level riseRelated disciplines
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Biogeochemistry*
Biogeography*
Hydrography*
Hydrology*
Limnology*
Meteorology*
Oceanography Image of the Day , from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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Oceanus Magazine , The Magazine the Explores the Oceans in Depth
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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)*
Scripps Institution of Oceanography*
St. Lawrence Observatory (OSL)*
Timeline of Oceanography*
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS)*
Government Technology Leadership Awards (GLTA) Program*
Oceanographers Net (Online portal for the Oceanographic community)*
/ The School of Earth , Ocean and Environmental Sciences , Plymouth*
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton*
NorwayOnline: Stone Age to Steam Age
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Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology*
Ocean World (Open source textbook)
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Ocean World (Glossary)
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The Oceanography Society*
NOAA Scientific Advancement Awards *
VADM David C. Richardson *
Naval Postgraduate School GSEAS: *
Tropical Meteorology Research Programme *
International Workshop on Monsoons*
Founders of Oceanography, and their work; an introduction to the science of the sea William A. Herdman
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SeaDiscovery an ocean of technology sicence and engineering*
NEMO : Modeling framework for OceanographySteele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001).
Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 012227430X
