Ojibwa
The
Ojibwa,
Aanishanabe or
Chippewa (also
Ojibwe,
Ojibway,
Chippeway,
Anishinaabe, or
Anishinabek) are the largest group of
Native Americans/
First Nations north of
Mexico, including
Métis. They are the third largest in the
USA, surpassed only by
Cherokee and
Navajo. They are about equally divided between the
USA and
Canada. Because they formerly were located mainly around
Sault Ste. Marie, at the outlet of
Lake Superior, the
French referred to them as
Saulteurs; Ojibwa who subsequently moved to the
Prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name
Saulteaux. The major component group of the
Anishinaabe, in the US they number over 100,000 living in an area stretching across the north from
Michigan to
Montana. Another 76,000, in 125 bands, live in
Canada, stretching from western
Québec to eastern
British Columbia. They are known for their
canoes and wild rice, and for the fact that they were the only Native Americans to defeat the
Sioux. [
1]
The
autonym for this group of
Anishinaabeg is
"Ojibwe" (plural:
Ojibweg). This name is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa". Due to ambiguity of pronunciation raised by this spelling, a variant spelling of "Ojibway" is also found as a disabmiguation. The name "Chippewa" is an anglicized corruption of "Ojibwa". Although "Chippewa" is more common in the USA and "Ojibwa" predominates in Canada, both terms do exist in both countries. The exact meaning of the name "Ojibwe" is not known; however, two most common explanations are 1) it is derived from "Ojiibwabwe" meaning "[Those who] cook until it puckers" referring to their fire-curing of
moccasin seams to make them water-proof and 2) the most likely, it is derived from the word "Ozhibii'oweg" meaning "[Those who] keep Records of a Vision" referring to their form of pictorial writing
pictograph used in
Midewiwin rites. Across many Ojibwa communities across Canada and the US, the more generalized name of
"Anishinaabe(-g)" is becoming more common.
The language of the Ojibwa, which many of whom still speak the
Ojibwe language known as
Anishinaabemowin or
Ojibwemowin, belongs to the
Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Among its sister languages are Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee.
Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; however, Central Algonquian is an areal grouping rather than a genetic one.
Ojibwemowin is the fourth most spoken in
North America (behind
Navajo,
Cree, and
Inuktitut). Due to the Ojibwa presence in the
Great Lakes region and for hundreds of years as their fur trading with the French increased the Ojibweg's power, the language became one of the handful of key trade languages of the area and for the northern
Great Plains, which lead to an extremely significant presence in the northern US. This was furthered by the popularity of
The Song of Hiawatha, which lent to
toponyms having their origin in the Ojibwa words found in this epic.
Pre-contact
According to their own tradition, and from recordings in
birch bark scrolls, they came from the eastern areas of North America, or
Turtle Island, and from along the east coast. According to the oral history, six great
miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the
Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the peoples of the
mide way of life. However, the one of the six great
miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the
Waabanakiing. The five great
miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The five great
miigis beings then established
doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these
doodem, the five original
Anishinaabe doodem were the Echoer (i.e., crane), Tender (i.e., bear), catfish, loon and marten, then these five
miigis beings returned into the ocean as well. At a later time, one of these
miigis beings appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. The prophecy stated that if the
Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new settlements and European immigrants that would arrive soon. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller
Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with
miigis shells (i.e.,
cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e.,
Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e.,
Abnaki) of their safety in having the
Anishinaabeg move inland, they advanced along the
St. Lawrence River to the
Ottawa River to
Lake Nipissing, and then to the
Great Lakes. First of these smaller Turtle Islands was
Mooniyaa, which
Mooniyaang (
Montreal, Quebec) now stands. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the
Wayaanag-gakaabikaa (Concave Waterfalls, i.e.
Niagara Falls). At their "third stopping place" near the present-day city of
Detroit, Michigan, the
Anishinaabeg divided into six divisions, of which the Ojibwa was one of these six. The first significant Ojibwa culture-centre was their "fourth stopping place" on Manitoulin Island. Their first political-centre was referred as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at
Sault Ste. Marie. Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwa divided into the "northern branch" following the north-shore of
Lake Superior, and "southern branch" following the south-shore of the same lake. The two branches came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island () located in the
St. Louis River estuary of
Duluth/
Superior region where the people were directed by the
miigis being in a vision to go to the "place where there are food (i.e.
wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or
Zhaagawaamikong, French,
Chequamegon) on the southern shore of
Lake Superior, near the present
La Pointe near
Bayfield, Wisconsin. Along their migration to the west they came across many
miigis, or
cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.
Post-contact
Their first historical mention occurs in the Jesuit Relation of
1640. Through their friendship with the French traders they were able to obtain guns and thus successfully end their hereditary wars with the
Sioux and
Foxes on their west and south, with the result that the
Sioux were driven out from the Upper
Mississippi region, and the
Foxes forced down from northern
Wisconsin and compelled to ally with the
Sauk. By the end of the
eighteenth century the Ojibwa were the nearly unchallenged owners of almost all of present-day
Michigan, northern
Wisconsin, and
Minnesota, including most of the
Red River area, together with the entire northern shores of Lakes
Huron and
Superior on the
Canadian side and extending westward to the
Turtle Mountains of
North Dakota, where they became known as the
Plains Ojibwa or Saulteaux.
The Ojibwa were part of a long term alliance with the
Ottawa and
Potawatomi First Nations, called the
Council of Three Fires and which fought with the
Iroquois Confederacy and the
Sioux. The Ojibwa expanded eastward taking over the lands alongside the eastern shores of
Lake Huron and
Georgian Bay. The Ojibwa allied themselves with the French in the
French and Indian War, and with the
British in the
War of 1812.
In the
USA, they were never removed as so many other tribes have been, but by successive treaty sales they are now restricted to reservations within this territory, with the exception of a few families living in
Kansas.
In Canada, the cession of land by
treaty or purchase was governed by the
Royal Proclamation of 1763 and subsequently most of the land in
Upper Canada was ceded to the
Crown. In northwestern
Ontario,
Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, and
Alberta the numbered treaties were signed.
British Columbia had no signed treaties until the late 1900's, and most areas have no treaties yet. There are ongoing treaty land entitlements to settle and negotiate. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times.
See
Treaty Timeline below - and see Individual Treaties with maps at [
2].
Most Ojibwa, except for the Plains bands, lived a sedentary lifestyle, engaging in
fishing,
hunting, the
farming of
maize and
squash, and the harvesting of Manoomin (
wild rice). Their typical dwelling was the
wiigiwaam (
wigwam) or the
waaginogan, made of
birch bark,
juniper bark and
willow saplings. They also developed a form of pictorial
writing used in religious rites of the
Midewiwin and recorded on
birch bark scrolls. The scrolls are complicated with a lot of geometrical and mathematical knowledge communicated through the pictures. The
miigis shell (
cowry shell) was also used in ceremonies, and this shell can only be found from far away coastal areas, indicating a vast trade network at some time across the continent. The use and trade of copper across the continent is also proof of a very large area of trading that took place thousands of years ago, as far back as the
Hopewell culture. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads were also traded over large distances. The use of
petroforms,
petroglyphs, and
pictographs was common throughout their traditional territories. Petroforms and
medicine wheels were a way to teach important concepts of four directions, astronomical observations about the seasons, and as a memorizing tool for certain stories and beliefs.
 |
Chippewa family c. 1821 |
The Ojibwe people and culture are alive and growing today. During the summer months, the people attend
pow-wows or "pau waus" at various reservations in the US and reserves in Canada. Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making
maple sugar. Many of the Ojibwe take part in
sundance ceremonies across the continent.
The Ojibwa would bury their dead in a
burial mound; many erect a
jiibegamig or a "grave house" over each mound. Instead of a headstone with the deceased's name inscribed upon it, a traditional burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's
doodem. Due to the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwa graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwa communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.
The legend of the Ojibwa "
Windigo," in which tribesmen supposedly identify with a mythological cannabalistic monster and prey on their families is mentioned in the fiction of
Thomas Pynchon. In his story 'Of Father's and Sons',
Ernest Hemingway uses two Ojibway as secondary characters.
Several bands of Ojibwa in the United States cooperate in the
Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the
Lake Superior-
Lake Michigan areas. The commission cooperates with U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. See
List of U.S. state and tribal wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwa bands cooperate in the
1854 Authority, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the
Arrowhead Region.
Clan system
The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of
doodem (clans) named for animal
totems. This served as a system of government as well as a means of dividing labor. The five main totems were
Crane,
Catfish,
Loon,
Bear and
Marten. The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest " so large, in fact, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet.
There were at least twenty-one totems in all, recorded by William Whipple Warren: Crane, Catfish, Loon, Bear, Marten, Wolf, Reindeer, Merman, Pike, Lynx, Eagle, Rattlesnake, Turtle, Moose, Black Duck, Sucker, Goose, Sturgeon, White Fish, Beaver, Gull, and Hawk. Some totems indicate non-Ojibwe origins, such as the Wolf Clan for
Dakota or Eagle Clan for
American. There are other totems considered rare today among the Ojibwe because the totems have migrated to other tribes, such as the Merman Clan, which shows up as the Water-spirits Clan of the
WinnebagoesSpiritual beliefs
The Ojibwa have a number of spiritual beliefs passed down by
oral tradition under the
Midewiwin teachings. These include a
creation narrative and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwa because spirits guided them through life.
Birch bark scrolls and
Petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as used for ceremonies.
Pictographs were also used for ceremonial use, and
Medicine Wheels also. The
Sun Dance ceremony was revived in Canada following many years of persecution and certain parts of the ceremonies being outlawed in Canada. The
sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions and to pass along the oral history of the people. Teaching lodges are still common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. These old ways, ideas, and teachings are still preserved today with these living ceremonies.
In Popular Culture
During the 6th season of
The Sopranos, an old Ojibwe proverb is shown in prominence and quoted in at least 3 episodes.
In the comic strip
For Better or For Worse, Elizabeth was a schoolteacher in a fictional Ojibwa village in Northern Ontario.
Warren, in his
History of the Ojibway People, records 10 major divisions of the Ojibwa in the United States, omitting the Ojibwa located in
Michigan, western
Minnesota and westward, and all of
Canada:
These 10 major divisions and other major groups that Warren did not record developed into these Ojibwa Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible.
*
Aamjiwnaang First Nation*
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways [
4]
*
Bay Mills Chippewa Community*
Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation*
Cat Lake First Nation*
Chapleau Ojibway First Nation*
Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation*
Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point*
The Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation*
Chippewa of the Thames First Nation*
Chippewa Cree Tribe of
Rocky Boys Indian Reservation*
Curve Lake First Nation*
Cutler First Nation*
Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians*
Garden River First Nation*
Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg)*
Islands in the Trent Waters*
Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation*
Kinistin First Nation*
Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug*
Magnetawan First Nation*
Lac Des Mille Lacs First Nation*
Lac La Croix First Nation*
Lac Seul First Nation*
Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation*
Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe**
Bad River Chippewa Band**
Keweenaw Bay Indian Community*** L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians
*** Lac Vieux Desert Chippewa Band
*** Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians
**
Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians*** Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
*** Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
***
Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians*** Removable
St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
**
Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa**
Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa [
5]
**
Sokaogon Chippewa Community**
St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin
*
Minnesota Chippewa Tribe**
Bois Forte Band of Chippewa Indians***
Bois Forte Band of Chippewa Indians***
Muskrat Portage Band of Chippewa Indians**
Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa**
Grand Portage Band of Chippewa**
Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe*** Cass Lake Band of Chippewa
*** Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa
*** Leech Lake Band of Pillagers
*** Removable
Lake Superior Bands of Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation
*** White Oak Point Band of
Mississippi Chippewa**
Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe***
Mille Lacs Indians***
Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa***
Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa*** St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of Minnesota
**** Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indians
**** Snake and Knife Rivers Band of Chippewa Indians
**
White Earth Band of Chippewa*** Gull Lake Band of
Mississippi Chippewa*** Otter Tail Band of Pillagers
*** Rabbit Lake Band of
Mississippi Chippewa*** Removable
Mille Lacs Indians*** Removable
Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa***
Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa*
Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation*
Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Historical)
*
Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians** Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians
*
Sandy Bay Ojibway First Nation*
Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation*
Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council*
Sagkeeng First Nation
*
Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians*
Saulteau First Nation*
Shawanaga First Nation*
Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians*
Wabasseemoong Independent Nation*
Wabauskang First Nation*
Wabun Tribal Council [
6]
** Beaverhouse First Nation
** Brunswick House First Nation
** Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation
** Matachewan First Nation
** Mattagami First Nation
** Wahgoshig First Nation
*
Wabigoon First Nation*
Wahnapitae First Nation*
Washagamis Bay First Nation*
Wauzhushk Onigum First Nation*
Whitefish Bay First Nation*
Whitefish Lake First Nation*
Whitefish River First Nation*
Whitesand First Nation*
Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation*
Windigo First Nations Council [
7]
** Bearskin Lake First Nation
** Cat Lake First Nation
** Koocheching First Nation
** North Caribou Lake First Nation
** Sachigo Lake First Nation
** Slate Falls First Nation
** Whitewater Lake First Nation
*
Wabigoon Lake Ojibway First Nation*
Whitefish Lake First Nation*
Yellow Quill First NationKnown
Name | Ojibwa
Name | Ojibwa
Meaning | Own
Name | | Arkansas | Aakaanzhish | Damn little Kansas | Quapaw |
| Assiniboine | Asiniibwaan | Stoney 'Asp' (i.e. the Sioux) | Nakota |
| Blackfoot | Makadewanazid | Black-foot | Siksikawa |
| Chipewyan | Ojiibwayaan | Pointed Skin | Dënesųłiné |
| Chowanoc | Zhaawanoog | Southerners | Shawnee |
| Eskimo | Ashki-amaw | Eats It Raw | Inuit |
| Flathead | Nebagindibe | Flat-head | Salish |
| Aakaans | [Lives at the] Little Hell-hole | Kaw |
| Kaskaskia | Gaaskaaskeyaa | Hide-scraper | |
| Kickapoo | Giiwigaabaw | Stands here-and-there | |
| Menominee | Omanoominii | Wild Rice People | Omā"qnomenew |
| Miami | Mayaame | Sturgeons | Miimii |
| Micmac | Miigimaa | Allied-Brothers | Mi'kmaq |
| Moingwena | Moowiingwenaa | Have a Filthy Face | |
| Ottawa | Odaawaa | Trader | Odawa |
| Potawatomi | Boodewaadamii | Fire Keeper | Bodéwadmi |
| Sauk/Sac | Ozaagii | [Lives at the] Outlet | Asakiwaki |
| Sioux | Naadawensiw | Little like the 'Adders' (i.e. the Iroquois) | Aioe-Dakota-Lakota-Nakota |
| Snake | Ginebig | Snake | Shoshoni |
| Winnebago | Wiinibiigoo | [Lives at the] Murky Waters | Ho-čąk |
*
Treaties with France*
Treaties with Great Britain** Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764)
** Treaty of Fort Niagara (1781)
** Indian Officers' Land Treaty (1783)
** The Crawford Purchases (1783)
** Between the Lakes Purchase (1784)
** The McKee Purchase (1790)
** Between the Lakes Purchase (1792)
** Chenail Ecarte (Sombra Township) Purchase (1796)
** London Township Purchase (1796)
** Land for Joseph Brant (1797)
** Penetanguishene Harbour (1798)
** St. Joseph Island (1798)
** Toronto Purchase (1805)
** Head-of-the-Lake Purchase (1806)
** Lake Simcoe Land (1815)
** Lake Simcoe-Nottawasaga Purchase (1818)
** Ajetance Purchase (1818)
** Rice Lake Purchase (1818)
** The Rideau Purchase (1819)
** Long Woods Purchase (1822)
** Huron Tract Purchase (1827)
** Saugeen Tract Agreement (1836)
** Manitoulin Agreement (1836)
** The
Robinson Treaties***
Ojibewa Indians Of Lake Superior (1850)
***
Ojibewa Indians Of Lake Huron (1850)
** Manitoulin Island Treaty (1862)
*
Treaties with the United States**
Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785)
**
Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789)
**
Treaty of Greenville (1795)
**
Fort Industry (1805)
**
Treaty of Detroit (1807)
**
Treaty of Brownstown (1808)
**
Treaty of Spring Wells (1815)
**
Treaty with the Ottawa, etc. (1816) - Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi
**
Treaty of Miami Rapids (1817)
**
St. Mary's Treaty (1818)
**
Treaty of Saginaw (1819)
**
Treaty of Saúlt Ste. Marie (1820)
**
Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac (1820)
**
Treaty of Chicago (1821)
**
Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825)
**
Treaty of Fond du Lac (1826)
**
Treaty of Butte des Morts (1827)
**
Treaty of Green Bay (1828)
**
Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829)
**
Treaty of Chicago (1833)
**
Treaty of Washington (1836) - Ottawa & Chippewa
**
Treaty of Washington (1836) - Swan Creek & Black River Bands
**
Treaty of Detroit (1837)
**
Treaty of St. Peters (1837) - White Pine Treaty
**
Treaty of Flint River (1837)
** Saganaw Treaties
***
Treaty of Saganaw (1838)
***
Supplimental Treaty (1839)
**
Treaty of La Pointe (1842)
**
Treaty of Potawatomi Creek (1846)
**
Treaty of Fond du Lac (1847)
**
Treaty of Leech Lake (1847)
**
Treaty of La Pointe (1854)
**
Treaty of Washington (1855)**
Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Ottawa & Chippewa
**
Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Sault Ste. Marie Band
**
Treaty of Detroit (1855) - Swan Creek & Black River Bands
**
Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency (1859)
**
Treaty of Washington (1863)**
Treaty of Old Crossing (1863)**
Treaty of Old Crossing (1864)**
Treaty of Washington (1864)**
Treaty of Isabella Reservation (1864)**
Treaty of Washington (1866)**
Treaty of Washington (1867)*
Treaties with Canada**
Treaty No. 1 (1871)
**
Treaty No. 2 (1871)
**
Treaty No. 3 (1873)
**
Treaty No. 4 (1874)
**
Treaty No. 5 (1875)
**
Treaty No. 9 (1905-1906) - James Bay Treaty
**
Treaty No. 5, Adhesions (1908-1910)
** The Williams Treaties (1923)
***
The Chippewa Indians***
The Mississauga Indians**
Treaty No. 9, Adhesions (1929-1930)
* F. Densmore,
Chippewa Customs (1929, repr. 1970)
* H. Hickerson,
The Chippewa and Their Neighbors (1970)
* R. Landes,
Ojibwa Sociology (1937, repr. 1969)
* R. Landes,
Ojibwa Woman (1938, repr. 1971)
* F. Symington,
The Canadian Indian (1969)
*
Chippewa treaties online and maps of the tribal areas discussed*
Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission*
Midwest Treaty Network*
Ojibwe culture and history, a lengthy and detailed discussion
*
Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary, an extensive electronic Ojibwe-English/English-Ojibwe language dictionary
*
Kevin L. Callahan's An Introduction to Ojibway Culture and History*
Ojibwe Song Pictures, recorded by Frances Desmore
*
Digital recreation of the 'Chippewa' entry from
Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, edited by Frederick Webb Hodge
*
Ojibwa migration through Manitoba*
video: The Making of an Ojibwe Hand Drum
