Peru
Peru, officially the
Republic of Peru (
Spanish:
Perú or
República del Perú pron. IPA ,
Quechua:
Piruw), is a country in western
South America, bordering
Ecuador and
Colombia to the north,
Brazil to the east,
Bolivia to the south-east,
Chile to the south, and the
Pacific Ocean to the west.
In addition to being known as the cradle of the
Inca empire, Peru harbors many
indigenous ethnic groups, making it a major historical and cultural site.
Ancient Cultures
The actual territory of modern-day Peru was the main center of the
Inca Empire, also known as the Tahuantinsuyo (four regions). After the
Spanish conquest, it was the largest and most important
Spanish Viceroyalty (Virreynato del Alto Perú) in the Americas.
Archaeological evidence indicates that hunters and gatherers have inhabited Peru for perhaps 20,000 years, based on evidence present in sites located in the caves of
Piquimachay (
Ayacucho),
Chivateros,
Lauricocha,
Paijan, and
Toquepala. Some of the oldest identifiable cultures appeared in
6000 BCE on the coast (in the provinces of
Chilca and
Paracas) and in the highlands (in the province of
Callejon de Huaylas). Over the following 3000 years, humans became sedentary, judging from sites such as
Kotosh and
Huaca Prieta. Cultivation of plants such as
corn and
cotton (Gossypium Barbadense) began, as well as the domestication of animals. Some years later, inhabitants developed the
spinning and
knitting of cotton and wool in additon to
basketry and
pottery.
|
The map of the Tahuantinsuyo |
More advanced Andean civilizations appeared in
900 BCE. They were:
*
Caral*
Chavin â€" The Peruvian Mother Culture, according to
Julio C. Tello *
Paracas*
Mochica*
Nazca*
Tiahuanaco*
Wari*
ChimuThese cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of
cultivation, gold and silver work,
pottery,
metallurgy and
knitting. They also developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of (around
700 BCE) the great
Inca civilization.
Minor civilizations on the edge of the eastern Andes that were essentially integrated into the Inca empire include:
*Malbecs
*Hu-Tyus
*Punos
*Mari-Tiu-Tie
*Olbraqeus
However, not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as they expanded their empire, and many were openly hostile. The people of the
Chachapoyas culture were only later integrated into the Inca Empire, albeit with much difficulty.
The Incas
Main article Inca EmpireThe
Incas created the most vast and powerful empire of
pre-Columbian America. Their administrative, political and military center was located in
Cuzco. The Tahuantinsuyo reached its greatest extension at the beginning of
XVI century. It dominated a territory that included from north to south
Ecuador, part of
Colombia, the northern half of
Chile and the north-east part of
Argentina; and from west to east, from
Bolivia to the
Amazonian forests. The
Tahuantinsuyo was organized in "señorÃos" (dominions) with a stratified society, in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. In fact, the
Inca Empire was conceived like an ambitious and audacious civilizing project, based on a mythical thought, in which the harmony of the relationships between the human being, nature and
Gods was truly essential.
|
The Inca, ruler of the Tahuantinsuyo |
"Inca", means a "god on Earth". The empire originated from a tribe based in
Cuzco, which became the capital. Pachacuti was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the
Cuzco state. His offspring later ruled an empire by violent and peaceful conquest. In
Cuzco, the royal city was created to resemble a
puma; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as Sacsayhuaman. The empire was divided into four quarters: Chinchasuyu, Antisuyu, Contisuyu and Collasuyu.
From the European rationalist perspective, the
Inca Empire has been seen like the utopia concretion. And its spectacular collapse under a group of Spanish soldiers has been seen as a logical consequence of the Spanish technological superiority, that took advantage of the Inca civil war triggered off by two pretenders to the throne. Nevertheless, this pragmatic interpretation tends to forget the destructive effects that the haughty collision between two antithetic
Weltanschauungs produced in the harmony of the
Inca Weltanschauung.
Quechua (Quichia) was the official language, imposed on the citizens. It was the language of a tribe neighbouring the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populationsâ€"tribes, kingdoms, states and citiesâ€"were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. For example, Inti, the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. Many strange and interesting customs were observed, for example the extravagant feast of Inti Raymi which gave thanks to Inti, and the young women who comprised the Virgins of the Sun, sacrificial virgins devoted to the sun god, Inti. The empire, for being so large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the
Inca Trail, and
chasquis, message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cuzco.
Colonial Peru (Spanish rule)
Main article The Viceroyalty of PeruFrancisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In
1531, they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms
Biru,
Pirú, and
Berú are also seen in early records.) According to
Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a
Quechuan nor
Caribbean word, but
Indo-Hispanic or hybrid. At that moment, the
Inca Empire was sunk in a five years war between two princes,
Huáscar and
Atahualpa. Taking advantage of this,
Pizarro carried out a "
coup d'état". On
November 16,
1532, while the natives were in a celebration in
Cajamarca, the Spanish took the
Inca Atahualpa prisoner by surprise, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huascar was murdered, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the crime, executing him by strangulation.
 |
Nazca Lines. Aerial photo of a drawing of a hummingbird. |
 |
Pizarro and his followers in Lima in 1535 |
For a period,
Pizarro maintained the authority of the
Inca, recognizing
Tupac Huallpa as the
Inca after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror's abuses made this fiction all too apparent. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. The situation was complicated by a power struggle between the
Pizarro family and
Diego de Almagro. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarros emerged victorious. Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant act was the foundation of
Lima in January,
1535, from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories, led to the creation of a
Real Audiencia (Royal Audience). In
1542, the Spanish created the
Viceroyalty of New Castilla, that shortly after would be called
Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the
Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the arrival of the Viceroy
Francisco de Toledo in
1572.
Toledo ended the indigenous state of
Vilcabamba, executing the
Inca Tupac Amaru. He also promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from argentiferous mines of
PotosÃ. He took advantage of the
Inca institution called "
mita" to put the native communities under a cruel economic enslavement.
The
Viceroyalty of Peru became the richest and most powerful Spanish
Viceroyalty of America in the
XVIII century. The creation of the Viceroyalties of
New Granada and
Rio de la Plata (at the expense of its territory), the commerce exemptions that moved the commercial center from
Lima to
Caracas and
Buenos Aires, and the fall of the mining and textile production determined the progressive decay of the
Viceroyalty of Peru. These events created a favorable climate so that the emancipating ideas had an effect on the
Creoles.
Wars of Independence
|
Don Jose de San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821. |
Main article Independence of PeruThe economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion from
1780 to
1781. This rebellion was headed by
Tupac Amaru II. At this time, the
Napoleonic invasion of the
Iberian Peninsula and the degradation of the Royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of
Huánuco arose in
1812 and the rebellion of
Cuzco arose between
1814 and
1816. These rebellions defended the liberal principles sanctioned by the
Constitution of Cadiz of
1812.
Supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the
Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in
South America. This Viceroyalty succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of
Simón Bolivar and
Jose de San Martin.
San Martin, who had displaced the realists of Chile after the magnificent battle of the Andes, and who had disembarked in
Paracas in
1819, proclaimed the independence of Peru in
Lima on
July 28,
1821. Three years later, the Spanish dominion was eliminated definitively after the battles of
JunÃn and
Ayacucho. Its first elected president, however, was not in power until
1827.
Early Republican Period
The conflict of interests that faced different sectors of the Creole society and the particular ambitions of the
caudillos, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three
civilians:
Manuel Pardo,
Nicolás de Piérola and
Francisco GarcÃa Calderón could accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life.
After the splitting of the Alto Peru in
1815, the
Republic of Bolivia was created. In
1828 Peru fought a war against
Gran Colombia over control of
Jaén and
Maynas territory called the
Gran Colombia-Peru War. After the war, Peru retained control over the territory. This was its first international conflict as a new nation. In
1837, the
Peru-Bolivian Confederation was also created but, it was dissolved two years later due to the
Chilean military intervention. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was lead by Andrés de Santa Cruz.
Between these years, political unrest continued, and the Army was an important political force. Peru initiated a period of political and economic stability in the middle of the
XIX century, under the General
Ramon Castilla's caudillista hegemony. The complete depletion of the
guano, main foreign currency source, and the
war of the Pacific with
Chile because of the dispute of the
saltpeter deposits of
Tarapacá, caused the economic bankruptcy and activated the social and political agitation of the country.
In 1864, Spain organised a so-called naval science expedition, whose main objective was to recover control of its former colonies. Spain started occupying the Chinchas Islands and arresting Peruvian citizens in 1864, claiming that Spaniards were mistreated on Peruvian ground. After that, the Spaniard Fleet destroyed the Chilean harbour of Valparaiso. Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru signed an alliance to defeat Spain by the end of December 1865. The Spanish Fleet tried to destroy the harbour of Callao, but failed. Main naval battles fought were the Battle of Papudo in 1865, Battle of Abtao and Battle of Callao in 1866.
War and Reconstruction
In 1879 Peru entered the
War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on April 5, 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region.
After the war, an extraordinary effort of reconstruction began. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. The
civilist movement headed by
Nicolas de Piérola opposed the
military caudillismo that arose from the warlike defeat and the economic collapse. He arrived to the power with the
1895 revolution. The reformist character of
Pierola's dictatorship had continuity in
Augusto B. LeguÃa's.
During
Leguia's government periods (
1908-
1912 and
1919-
1930, this last one was well-known as "the Oncenio" â€" The eleventh), the entrance of American capitals became general and the
bourgeoisie was favored. This politics along with the increase of the foreign capital dependency, contributed to generate opposition focuses between the landowner oligarchy as much as the most progressive sectors of the Peruvian society.
In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty,
Treaty of Ancon by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca, but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do on those territories.
After the world-wide crisis of
1929, numerous brief governments followed one another. The
APRA party had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. By this time, it begins a sudden population growth and an urbanization increase. During World War II, Peru was the first South American nation to align with the United States and its allies against Germany and Japan.
Between these two periods of time, it should be underlined the constitution of the
American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). This is a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist headed by
Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in
1924. The
communist party was created four years later and it was led by
Jose C. Mariategui.
Modern Politics
The general
Manuel A. OdrÃa implants a dictatorial government that lasted for eight years (
1948-
1956) and ended in the middle of incessant agrarian rebellions. These and the increasing summit of the leftist guerrilla -in
1963 approximately- were unsalvable obstacles for the reformist attempt of
Fernando Belaunde Terry's first government. Belaunde's Government spurred numerous developmental projects. These included the
Carretera Marginal de la Selva, a much-needed highway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with then isolated northern regions of
Amazonas and
San MartÃn. However, it was also blamed for making bad economic decisions, and by
1967 the
sol was seriously
devaluated.
In similar circumstances, in
1968, the general
Juan Velasco Alvarado's coup d'etat took place. The populist and nationalist character that
Velasco printed in his government finished in a conflict with the interests of the foreign capital and the local
oligarchy, that promoted general
Francisco Morales Bermúdez's coup d'etat in
1975.
Fernando Belaúnde Terry, elected once again to the Presidency between
1980 and
1985, faced a crisis caused by the unstoppable increase of the
external debt conditioned the action of the successive Peruvian governments. Belaunde was impotent in halting the progressive impoverishment of the vast majority of population, as well as the increase in
drug trafficking operations, or
insurgent revolts of the
Shining Path (
Sendero Luminoso) and the
Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA).
Alan Garcia was elected President in
1985; and after a promising start, it left the country with
hyperinflation, isolated from the international financial community, continuous subversive activities by the
Shining Path, great increase in poverty levels and an electric train multi-million investment in
Lima that was never finished. In a climate of generalized chaos, terror and political violence, the electoral victory of
Alberto Fujimori took place in
1990, when the virtually unknown University Rector narrowly defeated the famous Peruvian novelist and cultural icon
Mario Vargas Llosa.
Two years after he was elected, President Alberto Fujimori closed
Congress and convened a
referendum for elaborating a new
Constitution (1992). Credited by different sectors of the peruvian society and the international finacial community with restoring
macroeconomic stability to Peru after the turbulent Garcia years, he was widely criticised for what his opponents describe as
authoritarian leadership style and
human rights abuses, with the help of the and now imprisoned
Vladimiro Montesinos.
Following a controvertial third re-election, mounting corruption, political violence and growing instability, Fujimori resigned the Peruvian Presidency and requested political asylum in
Japan on the grounds of his
Japanese citizenship. In the chaos following Fujimori's fall from power,
ValentÃn Paniagua was selected President.
Alejandro Toledo was elected President (2001-2006), narrowly defeating the current President of Peru,
Alan GarcÃa (2006).
The formal politics of Peru takes place in a framework of a
presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the
President of Peru is both
head of state and
head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system.
Executive power is exercised by the government.
Legislative power is vested in both the
government and the
Congress. The
Judiciary is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislature.
Peru is divided into 25
regions (
regiones; sing. -
región), and subdivided into 180
provinces, and 1,747
districts.
The
Lima Province is located in the central coast of the country, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the twenty-five regions. The city of
Lima is located in this province, which is also known as
Lima Metropolitana (
Lima Metropolitan Area).
Until
2002, Peru was divided into 24
departments (
departamentos) plus one constitutional province (Callao), and many people still use this term when referring to today's regions, although it is now obsolete.
The
regions include:
Cities
The primary urban centers include:
*
Lima (the capital and the primary economic and cultural center)
*
Arequipa*
Trujillo*
Chiclayo*
Callao (the largest port)
*
Cusco (the modern capital of the ancient
Inca Empire)
*
Piura*
Tacna*
Ica *
Puno*
Chimbote*
Huancayo*
Huacho*
Cajamarca*
Pucallpa*
Iquitos*
Yurimaguas*
Tarapoto*
MoyobambaPeru's territory has an area of 1,285,216 km². It is bordered by
Ecuador and
Colombia on the north,
Brazil and
Bolivia to the east, and finally
Chile and
Bolivia to the south. To the west lies the
Pacific Ocean. Its population has more than 27 million inhabitants that speak
Spanish, with others bilingual in
Quechua or
Aymara and other native languages.
Eastern Peru consists mostly of the moist tropical jungles of the
Amazon Rainforest, the largest on Earth. In the southeast along the border with
Bolivia lies
Lake Titicaca — the highest navigable lake in the world. The
Altiplano plateau is a dry basin located along the slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru. Along the border with Chile, the
Atacama Desert is the driest place on the planet.
The
Peruvian Sea is home to a large amount and variety of fish life. The
Sechura Desert is located in northwestern Peru along the Pacific coastline.
The main rivers of Peru include the
Ucayali,
Marañón,
Amazon (which is formed by the confluence of the Marañón and the Ucayali),
Putumayo,
Pastaza,
Napo,
Jurua, and the
Purus.
Physiographic regions
When the Spanish arrived, they divided Peru (because of political reasons) into three main regions: the
Coastal region, which is bounded by the
Pacific Ocean; the
Highlands, that is located in the
Andean Heights, and the
Jungle, which is located on the
Amazonian Jungle. These words are still used in Peru. However,
Javier Pulgar Vidal, a geographer who studied the biogeographic reality of the Peruvian territory for a long time, proposed the creation of eight Natural Regions. In 1941, the III General Assembly of the
Pan-American Institute of Geography and History approved this motion.
|
Peruvian Physiographic Regions |
These eight Peruvian regions are:
*
Chala or Coast (subtropical dry and tropical savanna)
*
Yunga*
Quechua*
Suni or Jalca*
Puna*
Janca*
Rupa - Rupa or High Jungle*
Omagua or Low JungleNatural and cultural Peruvian heritage
The
Peruvian Constitution of 1993 recognised the
natural resources and
ecosystem variety of its country as a heritage. In 1900, the National System of Natural Areas that are protected by the Peruvian Government (SINANPE) was created. This entity depends on the National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA). They also created a map of protection and preservation of historical - cultural heritage and nature.
This map has 49 Natural Areas (10% of the country surface) that are preserved by the
Government: 8 National Parks, 8 National Reservations, 6 National Sanctuaries, 3 Historical Sanctuaries, 4 National Forests, 6 Protection Forests, 1 Communal Reservation, 2 Hunting enclosed lands and 11 Reserved Zones.
National Parks are places where the wild
flora and
fauna are protected and preserved. Natural resources exploitation and human settlements are forbidden.
National Parks:
|
A guacharo in the National Park of Tingo Maria, Peru. |
*
Cutervo It is the oldest Peruvian National Park. It was created in 1961 and is located in
Cajamarca. There are many caves in this park such as San Andres Cave, where the
guacharo lives - a bird in danger of extinction.
*
Tingo Maria It is located in
Huanuco. Its principal attraction is the
Cueva de las Lechuzas (
Owl Cave) where the
guacharos live.
*
Manu It is located in
Madre de Dios and
Cuzco. Its the most representative area of the Amazon biodiversity. In 1977,
UNESCO recognised it as a Reserve of Biosphere and in 1987, it was pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity.
*
Huascaran It is located in
Ancash. It was also pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity and recognised as Reserve of Biosphere Core. The highest snow-covered mountain is here (which name is also
Huascaran and has 6 000 m.). This park is the habitat of the
Puya Raimondi,
the American panther or puma, the
jaguar, the
llama, the
guanaco, the
Marsh Deer, the
Peruvian tapir, the
Peruvian Piedtail, a
hummingbird species, and many kinds of
ducks.
*
Cerros de Amotape (Amotape Hills) It is located in
Piura and
Tumbes. It has a lot of dry-climate forests and some endangered species like the
American Crocodile.
*
Abiseo River It is located in
San MartÃn.
UNESCO pronounced it as Natural and Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
*
Yanachaga-Chemillen It is located in
Pasco. It is a preservation zone of tropical forests that are at 4 800 m. The
Palcazu river,
Huancabamba river,
Pozuzo river and their affluents flows through this National Park. Some native communities still live in here. There are also some archaeological fields from the
Inca and
Yanesha cultures.
*
Bahuaja-Sonene It is located in
Madre de Dios. It has the tropical forests of
Puno, the
Heath Pampas and a part from the Reservation Zone
Tambopata-Candamo.
National Reservations, Protection and Spreading Areas of wild fauna:
|
The National Reservation of the Lomas de Lachay, Lima, Peru. |
*
Pampa Galeras â€" Barbara D'Achille It is located in
Ayacucho and it is the habitat of the
vicuña.
*
Junin It is located in
Junin. One of its main purposes is to protect the ecosystem and biodiversity of
Junin lake.
*
Paracas It is located in
Ica. Its main purpose is to preserve the sea ecosystem and protect the historical - cultural heritage.
*
Lachay It is located in
Lima. Its main purpose is to restore and protect the ecosystem of the
Lomas de Lachay (Lachay hills).
Pacaya-Samiria It is located in
Loreto. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems of the
Omagua Region and to promote the indigenous towns.
*
Salinas and Aguada Blanca They are located in
Arequipa and
Moquegua. Their main purpose is to preserve the
flora,
fauna and the landscapes formation.
*
Calipuy It is located in
La Libertad. Its main purpose is to protect the
guanaco's populations.
*
Titicaca It is located in
Puno. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems and landscapes of the
Titicaca lake.
|
The National Sanctuary of the Manglares de Tumbes, Tumbes, Peru. |
National Sanctuaries:
*
Huayllay*
Calipuy*
Lagunas de Mejia (The Mejia lagoon)
*
Ampay*
Manglares de Tumbes (The mangrove swamps of Tumbes)
*
Tabacones NamballeHistorical Sanctuaries:
*
Chacramarca*
Pampas de Ayacucho (The Pampas of Ayacucho)
*
Machu PicchuNational Forests:
*
Biabo Cordillera Azul (The Biabo Blue Mountain Range)
*
Mariscal Cáceres*
Pastazaâ€"Moronaâ€"Marañon *
Alexander von HumboldtProtection Forests:
|
San MatÃasâ€"San Carlos Protection Forest, Pasco, Peru |
*
Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial (Aledaño Intake of the New Imperial Canal)
*
Puquio Santa Rosa (Santa Rosa spring of water)
*
Puiâ€"Pui*
San MatÃasâ€"San Carlos*
Alto Mayo*
PagaibambaCommunal Reservation:
*
YaneshaHunting enclosed lands:
*
Sunchubamba*
El AngoloReserved Zones:
*
Manu*
Laquipampa*
Apurimac*
Pantanos de Villa (The swamps of Villa)
*
Tambopataâ€"Candamo*
Batán Grande*
Algarrobal El Moro (El Moro carob tree groved)
*
Tumbes*
GüeppÃ*
Chancaybaños*
Aymuru LupacaSince
1990, the Peruvian economy has undergone considerable free market reforms, from legalizing parts of the
informal sector to significant privatizations in the mining, electric/power, and telecommunications industries. Aided by foreign investment and cooperation between the former
Fujimori administration, the
IMF, and the
World Bank,
economic growth was rapid in
1994–
97 and inflation was kept low.
Still, some say that Peru's reforms have not led to sustained economic progress. According to the
Center for Economic and Policy Research, a U.S.-based
think tank, "Income per person in Peru â€" the most basic economic measure of living standards â€" is currently about the same as it was 25 years ago. This is a remarkable long-term economic failure."[
1]
In
1998,
El Niño's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in
Asia, and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth.
1999 was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of
El Niño and the
Asian financial crisis having an avdersely effect on the market economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the
IMF in June
1999, although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the
2000 elections.
Growth up to the year
2005 has been realized by construction, investment, domestic demand and exports. Peru's economy has become one of the most liberal market economies in Latin America. The country's petroleum, natural gas and power industries are expected to increase due to relatively high domestic and foreign influx of capital in the tourism, agriculture, mining and contruction sectors since 1995.
In April 2006, Peru signed a
trade agreement with the United States (known as the
Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, becoming the first country in the Andean Community of Nations (
Comunidad Andina de Naciones,
CAN) to sign it.[
2] As of June 2006, Peru's Congress has already approved the agreement and the pact awaits approval by the
U.S. Congress. Peru is currently negotiating
trade agreements with
Chile,
Mexico,
Singapore and
India.
Peru has free trade agreements with the
Andean Community, which is composed of
Colombia,
Ecuador,
Bolivia and
Venezuela. It also has free trade agreements with many of the countries in
Mercosur as well as
Thailand, and during the recent
APEC summit, Peru declared intentions to sign free trade agreements with
China,
Japan, and
South Korea.
Peru is also seeking a free trade agreement with the
European Union. These negotiations will greatly expand the markets in which the Peruvian products are traded. Peru has potential to export agricultural products, textiles, clothing, shoes, petroleum derivatives, natural gas, minerals, as well as fish and seafood products, tourism, and manufactured goods.
In 2005 Peruvian exports were worth US$ 17.1 billion (an increase of 34.6% compared to 2004) and it is expected to grow 35% for this year reaching US$ 23.5 billion at the end of 2006. The markets of Peru have grown in all sectors (energy, construction, commerce, fishing, manufacturing, tourism, etc) in 2005 growing over 6.67% (one the fastest growth rates of market economies in South America) and it is projected to grow 7% for 2006.
For the next five years (until 2010) the Peruvian government has registered more than US$ 10 billion in private investment (both domestic and foreign) in the mining and energy sectors, as well as investments of US$ 15 billion in other sectors such as industry, commerce, tourism, seafood and agriculture, which will keep the economy growing annually at levels of 5% or more.
Poverty in Peru is high, with a
poverty threshold level of 51.2% of the total population. However, the level is reducing slowly and it is expected to diminish to 20% of the population within 10 years.
| Peruvian Armed Forces |
|---|
| T-55 Tanks from the Armored Division |
|---|
| Military manpower |
| Military age | 18 years of age for non-compulsory military service (1999) |
| Availability | males age 18-49: 6,647,874
females age 18-49: 6,544,408 (2005 est.) |
| Fit for military service | males age 18-49: 4,938,417
females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.) |
| Reaching military age annually | males: 277,105
females: 269,799 (2005 est.) |
| Military expenditures |
| Dollar figure | $829.3 million (2003 est.) |
| Percent of GDP | 1.4% (2003 est.) |
The Military branches of the Republic of Peru are as follows:*
Ejército del Perú (
Peruvian Army)
*
Marina de Guerra del Perú (
Peruvian Navy, includes Naval Air, Naval Infantry and Coast Guard)
*
Fuerza Aérea del Perú (
Peruvian Air Force)
The
Peruvian Armed Forces was the second most powerful army of
South America[
3]. In the last few years social stability has brought the army back to its original objectives - control of the national sovereignty on the sea, land and air, as well as to protect the people, economy, and infrastructure from threats from both inside and outside of the country.
Peruvian Army
Headquartered in
Lima, it has a strength of 75 thousand troops divided in four military regions with headquarters in
Piura, Lima,
Arequipa and
Iquitos. Every military region assigned several
brigades of which there are different types, including
infantry,
cavalry and
armored. There are also several groups and batallions which operate independently.
The equipment of the Peruvian Army includes several types of
tanks (
T-55 and
AMX-13),
armoured personnel carriers (
M-113,
UR-416),
artillery (
D30 howitzer,
M101 howitzer,
M109 howitzer,
M114 howitzer), antiaircraft systems (
ZSU-23-4 Shilka) and helicopters (
Mil Mi-2,
Mil Mi-17).
Peruvian Navy (Marina de Guerra del Perú) is organized in five naval zones headquartered in
Piura,
Lima,
Arequipa,
Iquitos and
Pucallpa. It has a strength of around 25 thousand troops divided between the Pacific Operations and the Amazon Operations General Commands and the Coast Guard.
The Pacific fleet
flagship is the cruiser
BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81), named for the XIX-century Peruvian Admiral which fought in the
War of the Pacific (1879-1883). The fleet also includes 8
Lupo class frigates (two of which were built in Peru during the 80's), 1
Daring class destroyer, 6
PR-72 class corvettes, 4 Terrebonne Parish
class landing ships, 6 Type 209/1200'' class German-built diesel submarines (the biggest submarine force in South America), as well as patrol vessels, tankers and cargo ships.
Peruvian Navy has also a
naval aviation force, several naval infantry batallions and special forces units.
On
May 20,
1929, the aviation divisions of the Peruvian army and navy were merged into the Peruvian Aviation Corps (CAP, Cuerpo de Aviación del Peru). In
1950, the corps was reorganized again and became the Peruvian Air Force (FAP, Fuerza Aerea del Peru).
The Peruvian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea del Peru - FAP) is divided into 6 wing areas, headquartered in Piura,
Chiclayo, Lima, Arequipa,
Rioja and Iquitos. With a strong of 35 thousand troops, the FAP counts in its arsenal with
MiG-29,
MiG-25,
Mirage 2000,
Mirage M5 and
SU-22 supersonic aircraft.
Also, it counts with
SU-25 antitank aircraft, as well as
MI-24 antitank helicopters,
MI-8,
MI-17 transport helicopters, and
Aermacchi,
A-37 Cessna and SuperTucano
Embraer subsonic aircraft.
In
1995, the FAP took part in the
Cenepa War against
Ecuador covering operations by the army and navy. After the war, the FAP began acquiring new material, especially
MiG-29 fighters and
Su-25 attack fighters which are, along with the
Mirage 2000 fighters, the main combat elements of the FAP.
Cultural Diversity
Peru is one of only three countries in
Latin America which has its largest population segment consisting of indigenous
peoples. The country's plurality, some 45% of all Peruvians, are classified as
Indigenous peoples, and most are found in the southern Andes, though a large portion are also found in the southern and central coast due to displaced persons during the Civil war (1985-2000), and the massive internal labor migration from remote Andean and Amazonian regions to coastal cities, especially
Lima. While the
Andes are the "heart" of indigenous Peru,
Amazonia's rich
biodiversity is matched by the wide variety of
Indigenous peoples residing in the region that comprises the
Peruvian nations greatest cultural diversity.
The two major
indigenous or
ethnic groups are the various
Quechua-speaking populations, followed closely by the
Aymará, as well as literally dozens of indigenous cultures dispersed throughout the country beyond the
Andes Mountains and in the
Amazon basin.
A large proportion of Peru's indigenous peoples who live in the Andean highlands still speak
Quechua or
Aymara, and have vibrant cultural traditions, some which were part of the
Inca Empire, arguably the most advanced agricultural civilisation in the world. In the tropical Andes and lowlands of the
Amazon, which represents nearly 60% of Peruvian national territory, one notes some of the planet's greatest
cultural and
biological diversity. Peruvian
Amazonia is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban centers include
Iquitos,
Nauta,
Puerto Maldonado,
Pucallpa and
Yurimaguas. In Peruvian Amazonia is home to numerous
indigenous peoples, including the
Urarina, Cocama, and
Aguaruna, to name just a few.
At the national level,
mestizos constitute a large minority of the population, comprising some 42% of the population. The term denotes people of mixed ancestry be it
European with
indigenous,
African or
Asian.
Some 10% of the population is classified as "White" (
Blanco), mostly the descendants of relatively unmiscegenated
Spanish colonizers (called
criollos), though other smaller immigrant communities are also present, including
Italians,
Germans,
Eastern Europeans,
Chinese,
Japanese English, and
North Americans. The majority of them live in Peru's largest cities and those found along or relatively close to the coast, such as
Trujillo,
Chiclayo,
Piura,
Lima,
Cajamarca, and
Arequipa .
Between 2% to 3% of Peruvians are classified as "black" (Afro-Peruvian), most of them live in coastal cities found south of Lima such as that of the
Ica Region, in cities like
Cañete,
Chincha,
Ica,
Nazca and
Acari. In
Amazonia, some trace their origins to workers brought from the "British" Carribean to participate in the
Rubber Boom (1880-1920), as noted by their presence in cities like
Iquitos.
Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in Latin America after
Brazil. Many of them traveled to Japan in the 1980's and early 90s as the economic situation in Peru got worse. Some, however, came back after the
Japanese Peruvian president
Alberto Fujimori assumed
dictatorial power (1990-2000). A large community of people of Chinese descent live in Lima, where Chinese restaurants (called
chifas) are commonplace. Historic communities of Chinese people are found throughout the Peruvian
upper Amazon, including cities such as
Yurimaguas,
Nauta, and
Iquitos. In contrast to the Japanese community in Peru, the
Chinese appear to have intermarried much more. "Unmixed"
Asians make up roughly 3% of the population of Peru; the largest percentage of any
Latin American nation-state.
Language
Peru has two official languages -
Spanish and the foremost indigenous language,
Quechua. Spanish is understood by most Peruvians (over 80%), and is used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There had been an increasing and organised effort to teach Quechua in public schools.
The major obstacle to a more widespread use of the Quechua language is the lack of modern media which use it: for example books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental organisations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of
Don Quixote was presented in Quechua.
Despite this work an even more fundamental problem remains: most of the native speakers of Quechua are illiterate. Thus, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially an oral language. Until more work is done in terms of teaching written Quechua, it is unlikely to rival Spanish as the major language of the country.
Like its rich national history, the popular culture of contemporary Peru is the result of a fusion of cultures, constituted primarily from the cultural legacy of the indigenous groups, and Spanish and African colonists. This cultural mixture has been further enriched by the contributions of other immigrant groups, particularly Asians and non-Iberian Europeans.
Peruvian artistic creation
Peruvian cultural patrimony has its origin in the magnificent
Andean civilizations, which flourished before the
Spaniards' arrival. Peru's
archaeological treasures are evidence of many significant achievements comparable to those of other great civilizations.
Some of the first artistic manifestations reflecting more advanced intellectual and technological evolution are artifacts found in the deposits of
ChavÃn de Huántar and
Cupisnique. These are examples of symbolic and religious art including
gold and silver work,
ceramics,
architecture and
stone sculpture. These sites date as far back as the
14th century BC and
11th century BC, respectively.
Between the
8th century BC and
1st century AD, the
Paracas Cavernas and
Paracas Necrópolis cultures developed. The
Paracas Cavernas culture produced beautiful polychrome ceramics with religious representations as well as monochrome ceramics. The
Paracas Necrópolis culture is characterized by its delicate fabrics in complex styles.
|
The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002. |
In the period between the
3rd century BC and
7th century AD, the urban culture known as
Mochica developed in
Lambayeque.
Nazca culture also developed in this period in the valley of
rÃo Grande, in
Ica. In
Mochica culture, the magnificent
Huaca del Sol and
Huaca de la Luna and the
Huaca Rajada of
Sipan are worth mentioning. They are notable for their
cultivation in terraces and
hydraulic engineering, as well as some of the most original ceramics, textiles, and pictorial and sculptural art in the Andean world.
The
Wari civilization, which flourished between the
8th century and
12th century AD, was based in
Ayacucho. This civilization may have been the first Andean culture to define a planned urban layout. Such a concept was later expanded to zones like
Pachacamac,
Cajamarquilla,
Wari Willca and others.
Tiahuanaco culture developed by the borders of
lake Titicaca between the
9th century and
13th century AD. This culture introduced monumental lithic architecture and sculpture as well as military urbanism. These advances in
architecture were possible thanks to the discovery of
bronze for making tools.
The
Chimú town improvement on the principle of urban architecture. This civilization built the city of
Chan Chan in the valley of the
Moche river, in
La Libertad, between the
14th and
15th centuries AD. The
chimú were also skillful
goldsmiths and made remarkable works of
hydraulic engineering.
The
Inca Civilization incorporated, and in many cases perfected, many of the cultural techniques of the civilizations that preceded it. There are many examples of original Inca architecture and engineering that have outlasted later Spanish colonial structures. In this regard, the rich Inca heritage can still be observed in cities like
Cuzco, the fortress of
Sacsahuaman, Ollantaytambo,
Machu Picchu, and extensive stone roads that united
Cuzco with the four cardinal points of the
Inca Empire. The Spanish conquest displaced, not without violence, native artistic practices and concepts, although in many cases, it made for enriching hybrids of traditional Spanish and native art.
Architecture
Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known examples of the
Renaissance period are
the Cathedral and the
church of Santa Clara of Cuzco. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in the
Baroque. Some examples of this
Baroque period are the
convent of San Francisco de Lima, the
church of the CompañÃa and the facade of the
University of Cuzco and, overall, the churches of
San AgustÃn and
Santa Rosa of
Arequipa, its more beautiful exponents.
The
independence war left a creative emptiness that
Neoclassicism of French inspiration could just fill. The
XX century is characterized by the
eclecticism, to which the
constructive functionalism has been against. The most considerable example is
San Martin Plaza in
Lima.
Sculpture and Painting
Peruvian
sculpture and
painting began to define themselves from the
ateliers founded by
monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian
Baroque School. In this background, the stalls of the
Cathedral choir, the fountain of the
Main Square of
Lima and great part of the colonial production were registered.
The artistic crossbreeding was more intense in the pictorial creation. This crossbreeding gathered, without ambages, the native heritage and materialized, without incisions, the historical continuity. You are able to see this in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, from
Diego de Mora, or in the linens of the Italians
Mateo Pérez de Alesio and
Angelino Medoro, the Spanish
Francisco Bejarano and
J. de Illescas and the Creole
J. Rodriguez.
During
XVII and
XVIII centuries, the
Baroque also dominated the field of
plastic arts. In the
XIX century, the
French neoclassic and
romantic currents found his best representatives in
L. Montero, the
Ignacio Merino and
Francisco Masias.
In the
XX century, the establishment of the
Fine Arts School of Lima (
1919) printed the decisive impulse on Peruvian sculpture and painting. In
sculpture, we have some remarkable names like
Luis Agurto,
L. Valdettaro,
Joaquin Roca Rey,
J. Piqueras,
Alberto Guzmán,
Victor DelfÃn and
F. Sánchez. Between the painters, we have
Daniel Hernández,
R. Grau,
Cesar Quispez Asin and
Jose Sabogal.
Sabogal headed the indigenous movement. This movemevent was one of the props of the Peruvian contemporary painting, which more representative names are
Fernando de Szyszlo,
Alberto Davila,
Armando Villegas,
Sabino Springett,
Victor Humareda,
M. A. Cuadros,
Angel Chavez,
Milner Cajahuaringa,
Arturo Kubotta,
Venancio Shinki,
Alberto Quintanilla,
G. Chavez,
Tilsa Tsuchiya,
David Herskowitz,
Oscar Allain and
Carlos Revilla.
Literature
In the history of
Peruvian literature, the oral
indigenous tradition and the technical resources of writing (incorporated by Spaniards) converge in each other. From the beginning, it was possible to gather and to express the different and complex cultural realities that entered in conflict immediately after
the conquest.
|
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, a Peruvian writer from Cuzco |
Quechua and
Aymara literature was transmitted in an oral way. It was linked to religious, agrarian, affectionate, festive or funeral
rites. These characteristics became into certain forms of
poetry or
prose, as it is observed in the first historical
chronicles of the
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (
Los comentarios reales) or
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (
la Nueva crónica y buen gobierno) and in the identification between the
yaravies and the patriotic and romantic poetry. One of the most outstanding exponents here was
Mariano Melgar.
Later, the
hegemony of Creole
oligarchy in the Peruvian society favored the abandonment of the indigenous forms in favor of the European ones. Then the [Neoclassicism|neoclassicists]] arose like
Manuel Asencio y Segura and
Felipe Pardo y Aliaga. They held themselves almost until the end of the
XIX century. At this time, the
romantic current was imposed thanked to the works of
Carlos Augusto Salaverry and
Jose Arnaldo Marquez, between others. The general crisis derived from the
War of the Pacific gave place to the
Modernism. Its best exponents were
Jose Santos Chocano and
José MarÃa Eguren. After them, the
Avant-gardism current popped up strongly impelled by the magazines:
Colónida and
Amauta.
Amauta magazine was founded in
1926 by
José Carlos Mariátegui. Between its collaborators was
César Vallejo. Meanwhile the
Indigenous current in
poetry was reborn thanked to
Luis Fabio Xammar. The
avant-gardist writers were fragmenting in different
lyric proposals like the ones of
Xavier Abril,
Alberto Hidalgo,
Sebastian Salazar Bondy,
Carlos Germán Belli, and others. They were opening new and diverse expressive fields.
In the
XIX century, Peruvian prose passed from the
costumbrismo current:
Manuel Ascensio Segura and
Ricardo Palma, to the
Modernism current:
Manuel González Prada and
José Santos Chocano. In the
XX century, the indigenous prose reached some of its culminating moments with
Ciro AlegrÃa and
José MarÃa Arguedas,
Sebastián Salazar Bondy,
Manuel Scorza and
Julio Ramón Ribeyro. Without leaving the
realistic approach,
Mario Vargas Llosa and
Alfredo Bryce Echenique incorporated new
narrative techniques. Some of the most remarkable names in
poetry are
Emilio Adolfo Westphalen,
Jorge Eduardo Eielson,
Carlos Germán Belli,
Antonio Cisneros,
Wáshington Delgado,
Marco Martos,
Carmen Ollé and in
narrative:
Miguel Gutiérrez,
Gregorio MartÃnez,
Alonso Cueto,
Guillermo Niño de Guzmán, between others.
Art
|
Iglesia de la CompañÃa, Cuzco |
The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between
Spanish and
Amerindian cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in
The Americas, where
Pre-Inca cultures, such as
ChavÃn,
Moche,
Paracas,
Huari (Wari),
Nazca,
Chimu, and
Tiahuanaco developed high-quality
pottery,
textiles,
jewelry, and
sculpture.
Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of
Machu Picchu and the buildings at
Cuzco are excellent examples of
Inca architectural design.
During the colonial period, Spanish
baroque fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce
mestizo art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools.
Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits.
Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since
World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as
Cesar Vallejo and
José MarÃa Arguedas have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.
In the decade after
1932, the "indigenous school" of painting headed by
José Sabogal dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of Arts in
1943 coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters from Europe who revitalised "universal" and international styles of painting in Peru.
During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognised Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing center with painters such as Fernando de Szyslo, Gerardo Chavez, José Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and José Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor Victor DelfÃn, gaining international stature.
Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.
Crafts
Between the most spread crafts in Peru, there are the
ceramics (either artistic or utilitarian), the
carving, the
silversmiths' work, the leather
repoussage, the straw
weaving, and of course the
textile work, emphasizing the colorful
weavings made of
alpaca's wool.
Pre-Hispanic Peruvian Andean cultures were especially bound to musical artistic expressions. In fact, almost all agricultural communal works were accompanied by
music and
singings (generically called in
Quechua language:
taqui). The ethnic diversity of ancient Peru made diverse
traditions and customs coexist across the time. They were strongly determinants of the rich development of Post-Hispanic Peruvian folklore.
At the present time, different musical expressions (
dances and
songs), folkloric festivities (religious or not),
arts and crafts,
gastronomy and other activities (that varies according to different regions) are important expressions of Peruvian and Latin-American cultural heritage.
Music
|
The quena is a Peruvian wind instrument, mostly used by Andean musicians |
Like its geography (28 of 32 world climates), its cuisine and its various ethnicities, Peruvian music is very diverse. Much of Peru's music is derived from
Andean, Andalusian
Spanish and
African roots. Modern Peruvian music and Amazon influenced music is also common in Peru.
The Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians mostly used
wind instruments such as the
quena, the
pinkillo, the
erke, the
antara or
siku (also called
zampoña), the
pututo or
pototo, etc. They also used diverse
membranophone instruments such as the
tinya (hand drum), the
wankar, instrument of big dimensions, the
pomatinyas - made of
puma's skin-, and the
runatinyas - made of human's skin-. The
runatinya was also used in battles.
With the
Spanish conquest, new
instruments arrived like
harps,
guitars,
vihuelas,
bandurrias,
lutes, etc. Due to these
instruments, new crossbred Andean instruments appeared. These crossbred instruments are still in used nowadays: the
Andean harp and the
charango. The
sounding box of the
charango is made of the
armadillo's shell.
The cultural crossbreeding did not limit itself to the contact of
Indigenous and
European cultures. The
African slaves' contribution was demonstrated in
rhythms and
percussion instruments. This influence is visible in musical forms like
festejo,
zamacueca, etc.
Coastal music is rooted in the haciendas and the
callejones of cities such as Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Tumbes and Ica.It involves a creole version of the
Spanish guitar and the famous Peruvian instrument
Cajon drum.
Andean Peruvian music
Andean music is rooted in the traditional
native music, the
Spanish orquestal and
European Church musicals. The southern Andean region is famous for the
Huayno, a mestizo happy chant that involves
Charango guitar, beautifully-toned lamenting vocals and sometimes the
Andean Harp. The Huayno Ayacuchano is probably the most famous of its styles since it is played on creole and even Spanish guitar, adding to its feel an even a more soulful and romantic expression.
Cusco,
Puno and
Apurimac have a more pure native feel to their music whom even incorporate violins. Famous tuens are the
Muliza and
Valicha Cusqueña, whom are also very romantic and melancolic. Other Andean rhythms involve a fusion of European Church music and Huaynos such as the known song "
El Cóndor Pasa", a traditional Peruvian song popularized in the United States by the folk duo
Simon & Garfunkel and featured in the movie "
The Graduate". The original composition consists of a YaravÃ, followed by an Inca "
Pasacalle" and a Huayno fugue, three traditional Inca rhythms.
Jorge Bravo de Rueda's famous "VÃrgenes del Sol" was popularized in 1951 by
Yma Súmac.
Arequipa is region that probably that resembles best the mixing of the
Spanish and the
Andean cultures.
Arequipa city is the proud creator of the famous
YaravÃ, a melancholy style that involves Spanish or
creole guitar that is sung
A Capella. It has been popularized to the rest of the Andean comunities after the
Pacific War in honor of
Mariano Melgar (local hero). The music evokes to the solitude of the mountains, the miners and the Andean farmer. It is a mix of gypsy
Zards and
Huayno.
The
Huaylas of the central Andes, by contrast, is a cheery, rhythmic style mostly popular around
Cerro de Pasco,
Huanuco Huaraz.
Coastal Peruvian music
The coast has a different feel to its music than its Andean counterpart. It is called
musica criolla and its rooted in a fusion that evokes to traditional
Spanish,
Gypsy (Roma People) and
African influence.
It combines traditional European rhythms, strong gypsy emotional flair deriving from
Flamenco and eastern European
Zards, and also
African based chorus and percussion.
This mixture is rooted especially in the central and northern coast, and has provided the wide range of dance and musical styles we hear today.
Lima for example, is most well known musical style
Peruvian Waltz known elsewhere as
valse peruano and
valsesito peruano. The rhythm involves a singer, a chorus, creole
Guitarr, Peruvian
Cajón and spoon players. It is widely popularised by the great
Chabuca Granda, who is considered the most important composer of
coastal creole music, with such songs as
La Flor de La Canela,
Fina Estampa, and
José Antonio. Other commonly known
peruvian valse tunes are
Alma Corazon y Vida,
Odiame,
Propiedad Privada,
El Plebeyo, and
El Rosario de Mi Madre, some of these songs are twisted to Bolero or Salsa version by
Caribbean artists.
Afro Peruvian music is commonly performed by duos of creole guitars, the
Cajon,
Cajita and the peculiar
Quijada de Burro.
Examples of these dances are the
Festejo and
Landó, which are common to
Afro-Peruvian communities of the southern coast.
Susana Baca is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album
Lamento Negro.
The
Marinera or
Zamacueca of the central coast
Lima is the current National Dance of Peru, named in honour of the marines who fought against the Chilean military in the
War of the Pacific. Among Peruvians of the coast, it is considered as traditional and representative as the
Tango is to
Argentina. The dance evokes from a mixture of Eastern European
gypsy, flamenco and the elegance of the
Peruvian Paso Horse. Many people take classes and look forward to the annual Marinera Festival held in the city of
Trujillo every July, with thousands in attendance.
In the northern coast especially
Lambayeque and
Piura, the people are most famous for the
Cumananas and the
Tondero dance. These are the oldest and most mestizo expressions of Peruvian music and derive from the encounterd mixture of the
Gypsies,
Africans slaves and migrant
Andean cultures.
Peruvian coastal music has in its rich structure the participation of a local instrument called the cajón. This instrument has been mistaken very frequently with an Spanish origin (the cajon was introduced in Spain around the 1980's by Paco de Lucia, but the truth is that the cajon has been utilized in Peruvian music since the colonial times. Although it might also have
gypsy influence it has been prooved that the instrument is stricktly of Peruvian origin since it is rooted in the Tondero, the Zamacueca, the Resabalosa and Peruvian coastal creole rythms before any other expressions.
Dances
|
Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance in the coast of Peru. |
Between Dances of Native origin, there are the ones that are related to the
agricultural work,
hunting and
war. Some
choreographies show certain Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean dances are the
kashua and the
wayno or
huayno. The
kashua has a communal character and it is usually danced in groups in the country or open spaces. The
huayno is a "salon ball". It is danced in couples and in closed spaces. The
yaravi and the
triste have also an Andean origin. They are usually songs with very emotional lyrics.
Dances of Ritual character are the
achocallo, the
pinkillada, the
llamerada (dance that imitates the
llama's walk), the
kullawada (the
spinners' dance), etc. Between the Hunting dances, it can be mentioned: the
llipi-puli and
choq'elas. They are dances from the
altiplano related to the
vicuña's hunting.
There are some Dances of War like the
chiriguano that has an
Aymara origin; the
chatripuli that satirizes the Spanish Realist soldiers, and the
kenakenas that is about the Chilean soldiers who occupied Peru during the
War of the Pacific (
1879). There are also
Carnival Dances. A
Carnival is a western holiday that, in the Peruvian
Andes, is celebrated simultaneously with the
crops time. Many
rural communities celebrate the youths' initiation during these holidays with ancestral rites and crossbred dances. New couples might be established.
The most attractive and internationally known Love Dance in Peru is the
Marinera Norteña. This dance represents a man's courting to a young woman. There are local variants of this dance in
Lima and the other regions of the country.
Popular Celebrations
Popular Celebrations are the product of every town's
traditions and
legends. These celebrations gather
music,
dances,
meals and typical
drinks. In addition to the religious celebrations like
Christmas,
Corpus Christi or
Holy Week, there are others that express the
syncretism of the
indigenous believes with the
Christians'. An example of this kind of celebration is the
Alasitas (an
Aymara word that, according to some studious people, would mean «buy me») that combines a
crafts and
miniatures
fair with
dances,
meals and a
mass. Another example is the peregrination of the
Q'oyllor-riti (Cusco Region|Cuzco), that gathers the ancient
cult to the
apus (tutelary divinities of the mountains) with a peregrination to a Christian Sanctuary in a
long trek to the top of a
mountain, of more than 5000 m. at sea level, that is covered with snow.
There is a big variety of food, like
maize,
tomato,
potatoes,
uchu or
ajà (
Capsicum pubescens),
oca,
ulluco,
avocado, fruits like
cherimoya,
lúcuma and
pineapple (anana), and animals like
taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis) (similar to the
little red brocket),
llama and
Guinea pig (cuy). After the combination of the
American,
European and
Moorish culinary traditions, appeared new
meals and ways of preparing them. The successive arrivals of the Africans and the Chineses also influenced in the development of the
Creole cuisine, that is so diverse and succulent nowadays.
Peruvian cuisine, for years unnoticed abroad, has recently exploded onto the world gastronomic scene. Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish roots, but has also been influenced by other groups, including Africans, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all of whom have added their own ingredients and traditions to the mix.
Peru's many climate zones also make it possible to grow a wide range of crops. There are the dozens of native
potato,
maize and
chile pepper varieties from the
Andes being
Rocoto one of the most popular, to the plentiful fish and seafood from the Pacific coast, mangoes and limes from the coastal valleys, and bananas and manioc from the
Amazon jungle.
Between the most typical dishes of the Peruvian cuisine, we have the
cebiche, which is also spelled "ceviche" (
fish and
shellfish marinated in
lemon juice), the
chupe de camarones (a
soup made of
shrimps (Cryphiops caementarius)), the
anticuchos (a
beef's heart roasted in
brochettes), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of
ulluco and
charqui), the
Andean pachamanca (
meats,
tubers and
broad beans cooked in a stone oven), the
lomo saltado (cuisine) (meat fried lightly with
tomato and
onion, served with
French fries and
rice) that has a Chinese influence, and the
picante de cuy (a casserole dish made of fried
guinea pig with some
spices). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the
chicha de jora (it's a
chicha made of tender
corn dried by the sun). This drink has a very low alcoholic graduation. There are also
chichas made of
purple corn or
peanut. They are very refreshing and do not have any alcoholic content.
The most popular ceviche is a type of seafood cocktail where the fish has been marinated in lime with onions and hot peppers, but not cooked. The lime's acid precipitates the protein and hence turns the fish white, "cooking" it. There are several types of ceviche that include fish only, mixed seafood, mussels, etc. Other typical food include staples from the Andes;
humitas (
tamales), roasted cuy
guinea pig,
papa a la Huancaina,
Jalea de Mar,
Chilcano,
Sudado,
Aguadito, Tallarin Saltado,
Aji de Gallina,
Arroz con Pollo,
Seco de Res,
Chicharrones,
Tacu Tacu,
Carapulcra (Dry potato),
choncholi,
Salchipapas,
Mondonguito a la Italiana,
Chanfainita,
Ocopa, different
Chifa dishes (Chinese food made with Peruvian ingredients), Estofado, Bistec a la Pobre, Arroz con Pato,
Rocoto Relleno,
Empanadas,
Pollo a la Brasa,
Lechon, Picante de Mariscos, Arroz con Leche, Turron de Doña Pepa.
Caramel, also known as
Manjar Blanco in Peru, is a very popular dessert. Also
Crema Chantilly in very popular in cakes. Other desserts include
Mazamorra Morada,
Arroz con Leche,
Flan,
Crema Volteada,
Leche Asada,
Torta Helada.
The most popular soft drink is called
Inca Kola, which is a yellowish cream soda, but other sodas are popular too, such as
Kola Inglesa,
Guarana Backus, and other very common fruit sodas like oranges, pineapple, and lemon. Peru's most well known beverage is the
Pisco which originated in the Peruvian department of Ica.
Chess:
Julio Granda is the most famous Peruvian chess player. His epic battle in 1998 with Jorge Useche was one of Peru's most riveting chess matches.
Football: The most popular Peruvian sport is football (soccer) (World Cup appearances: 1930,1970(quarterfinalists),1978(quarterfinalists),1982 and two
Copa America trophies). Most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup tournament on television. Soccer legends from Peru include
Hugo Sotil,
Cesar Cueto,
Roberto Challe, and
Teofilo Cubillas: Peru's best striker in the World Cup Finals with 10 goals. Current renowned players include midfielder
Nolberto Solano (
Newcastle United), and strikers
Claudio Pizarro,
Jose Paolo Guerrero (
SV Hamburg) and
Jefferson Farfán (
PSV Eindhoven).
Universitario de Deportes,
Alianza Lima,
Sporting Cristal, and
Cienciano are the biggest teams in Peru. In 2003, Cienciano won the
Copa Sudamericana.
Volleyball: Other popular sport is Women's Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games, Runners-up in World Championship in 1982 and 12 times South American champion).
Surfing:
Felipe Pomar, 2nd World Surfing Championship, Peru 1965,
Sofia Mulanovich, Women's World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005.
Sailing: Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the
Sunfish Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in
Team-Racing in 1997, 1998, and 1999.
Shooting: Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4
Olympic medals. Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games, while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992) both won silver medals.
Tennis:
Luis Horna and
Jaime Yzaga are the most famous Peruvian tennis players. Tennis Hall of Famer and Davis Cup and Wimbledon winner Alejandro Olmedo was born in Peru but he played for the United States.
Paleta Fronton: The only sport truly born in Peru. Has its roots in "Pelota Vasca" and "Hand Ball". Played with a wooden raquet and a hollow rubber ball filled with air, and in a court consisting of a concret wall and floor. Paleta Fronton is growing in popularity and now is played in Costa Rica and Mexico.
*
Reporters without borders world-wide press freedom index: Rank 116 out of 167 countries (2005)
*
UN Human Development Index 2005: Ranked 79 out of 177 countries. Up 6 places from 85 in 2004.
*
Communications in Peru*
Foreign relations of Peru*
List of famous Peruvians*
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Peruvian nationality law*
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Asociación de Scouts del Perú*
Open Directory Project - Peru directory category
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Peruvian in the world*
Encyclopaedia Britannica - Peru's Country Page*
Peruvians in Germany*
Volunteer in Peru*
Peru country-data.com pageArchaeology*
Archaeological information from the North of PeruNaturePolitics*
Public Opinion in Peru*
Center for Reproductive Rights Report (PDF format)
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All you need to know about Peru's election*
Local government in Peru*
Council on Foreign Relations: Peru's Elections*
Peru's 2006 ElectionsPeru maps*
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Peruvian Modern Rock Webzine*
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Z Rock & Pop Radio*
Radio Doble 9 FM - Rock Music*
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