Pompeii
|
A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 which buried Pompeii, from the BBC's Pompeii: The Last Day. |
Pompeii is not to be confused with the Roman general Pompey. For the song, see Pompeii (song) and for the Italian commune, see Pompei.Pompeii is a ruined
Roman city near modern
Naples in the
Italian region of
Campania, in the territory of the commune of
Pompei. It was destroyed during a catastrophic
eruption of the
volcano Mount Vesuvius in AD
79. The volcano buried the city under many feet of ash and it was lost for 1,600 years before its accidental rediscovery. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today, it is one of Italy's leading tourist attractions and is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
|
Pompeii and Roman Campania |
The ruins of Pompeii are situated at coordinates , near the modern suburban town of
Pompei. It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the
Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer the coast.
Early history
Although most of the archeological digs at the site only extend down to the street level of the 79 AD volcanic event, deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled
sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archeologists have found bits of animal bone,
pottery shards and bits of plants. Using
carbon dating, the oldest layer has been placed as 8th-6th century BC, about the time that the city was founded. The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid down in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large
landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. (Senatore,
et al., 2004)
The town was founded around the
6th century BC by the
Osci or Oscans, a people of central
Italy. It had already been used as a safe port by
Greek and
Phoenician sailors. When the
Etruscans threatened an attack, Pompeii allied with the Greeks, who then dominated the Gulf of
Naples. In the
5th century BC, the
Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of
Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. It has been supposed that during the Samnites' domination, Rome conquered Pompeii for a while, but these theories have not been verified.
Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in
89 BC it was besieged by
Sulla. Although the troops of the
Social League, headed by
Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in
80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of
Nola. It became a Roman colony with the name of
Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or
Southern Italy along the nearby
Appian Way.
1st century BC
|
A quiet street in Pompeii. |
|
Fresco on the wall of a Pompeii house. |
|
Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo. |
|
Pompeii gymnasium seen from the top of the stadium wall. |
The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the
1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried in AD 79.
The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the
Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved.
Pompeii was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription
Salve, lucru (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since
nummus means coin, money). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (
Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun,
Vesuvinum (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum).
Graffiti carved on the walls shows us real street
Latin. In 89 B.C., after the final occupation of the city by Roman General
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed to the
Roman Republic. Under this period Pompeii underwent a vast period of development, largely new infrastructure, most of which was built during the augustan period. Worth noting are an
amphitheater, a
Palaestra with a central cella natatoriua or swimming pool, and aqueduct which covered more than 25 street fountains, more than 4 public baths (the largest of which remained unfinished after the eruption) , and a large number of private houses (
domus) and businesses. The aqueduct branched out through 3 main pipes from the
Castelum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city, although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of gradually extreme
drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the Public Baths (least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii.
The large number of well-preserved frescoes throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in
art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of
Pompeian Styles the First/Second/Third Style demarcation]].
At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their vacation villas. Prof. William Abbott explains "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations". It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its
decumanus and its
cardus, centred on the forum.
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the
Macellum (great food market), the
Pistrinum (mill), the
Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and
cauporioe (small restaurants). An
amphitheatre and 2 theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or
gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square meters) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine".
In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of
Sarno river revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in
palafittes, within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to
Venice to some scientists. These studies are just beginning to produce results.
62-79
The inhabitants of Pompeii, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor tremors (indeed, the
writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on
5 February,
62[
1] there was a severe
earthquake which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79 AD, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption [
2].
An important current field of research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired 10 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
Vesuvius eruption
By the
1st century AD, Pompeii was only one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously
Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 AD eruption.
Rediscovery
|
Plaster casts of victims of the eruption. |
Thick layers of ash having covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738, and Pompeii in 1748. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by an architect named Fontana, who was digging a new course for the river Sarno, but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them. The king
Charles VII of Two Sicilies took great interest in findings even after becoming king of Spain.
Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1860. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting
plaster into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed
Pompeiani who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible (see [
3], [
4], [
5])
Some have theorized, without proof, that Fontana initially found some of the famous erotic
frescoes and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at
archaeological censorship. This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied. A detailed discussion of the erotic art of Pompeii, with pictures, can be found in a
separate article.
Novels
Pompeii served as the background for the historic novels
The Last Days of Pompeii (since adapted for film and TV) and
Pompeii, as well as appearing in
Shadows in Bronze and other novels in the
Marcus Didius Falco series.
TV
Fiction
It was the setting for the
British comedy
television series Up Pompeii, and the film of the series.
Documentaries
More recently,
*an hour-long drama produced for the
BBC entitled
Pompeii: The Last Day portrayed several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii,
Herculaneum and around the
Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a
fuller and his wife, two
gladiators, and
Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
*Pompeii Live,
Channel 5, 28th June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig [
6]
Music
In October of 1971, the famous band
Pink Floyd performed at the vacant 2,000-year-old amphitheater in Pompeii, to an audience composed of film crew including camera operators. This performance, including some exterior shots of the ruins, was released as part of a movie entitled "
Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii."
Last Days of Pompeii is the 1991 rock opera by alternative rock band
Nova Mob.
Pompeii am Götterdämmerung is the name of a song by the popular band,
The Flaming Lips, on their album "At War With the Mystics".
"Pompeii" is the title of a song written by Seattle-based
progressive rock band
Gatsbys American Dream. It is the second track of their 2005 release, "Volcano" - based loosely around the story of Pompeii.
A musical track of the same name is also produced by
E.S. Posthumus and has been used in films like
Planet of The Apes and many others, under the Unearthed album. This music is said to be the favorite among the listeners who have the mentioned album due to the dramatic and imposing tempo.
Other
The theme park
Busch Gardens Williamsburg features an attraction entitled "
Escape from Pompeii," which carries riders through the city as flaming ruins toppled around them, ending in a fifty-foot plunge.
Rexford (Rex) Phillips, a.k.a. "Rexino Mondo," wrote, sang, narrated and produced a 210-minute "audio book" entitled
Messenger From Pei. It tells of his tour of duty in the
U.S. Army's 10th Special Service Company in
Korea, where he encountered, befriended and eventually discovered strong bonds with actress
Debbie Reynolds. Unexplainable cross-currents take them on a journey into a past lifetime, and in particular their escape from "decadent Pei," just prior to that city's complete destruction, the same as the final days of its corrupted daughter-to-be "Pompeii." The work was produced in 1992, and had limited circulation.Siouxsie and The Banshees single 'Cities in Dust'(1985) was also inpired by the destruction of Pompeii.
*
Pompei, the modern town
*
Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum*
Gallery of Pompeii and Herculaneum*
Pompeii: The Last Day*
House of the Vettii*
Mount Vesuvius* Ellis, Steven J.R., 'The distribution of bars at Pompeii: archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses' in:
Journal of Roman Archaeology 17, 2004, 371-384.
* Senatore, M.R., J.-D. Stanley, and T.S. Pescatore. 2004. Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E.
Geological Society of America meeting. Nov. 7-10. Denver.
Abstract.
* Maiuri, Amedeo,
Pompeii, pp, 78-85, in Scientific American,
Special Issue: Ancient Cities, c. 1994.
*
*
Pompeii official web site*
Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia*
Herculaneum/Pompeii/Stabiae Website*
Digitizing Pompeii*
ItalianVisits.com*
Pompeii: The Musical*
Patterns of reconstruction at Pompeii*
Current Archaeology article, Visiting Pompeii*
Area VesuvioThree decades of Seismic Activity at Mt. Vesuvius 1972-2000*
Biography of Nero, by Suetonius*
The Annals by Publius Cornelius Tacitus*
Translation of Pliny's letters to Tacitus*
Another translation, and comments on Pliny the Elder's death, at UCSB's The Volcano Information Center website*
Pompeii at University of Minnesota's Emuseum*
Photo Journal of Pompeii's Excavated Brick Ovens*
Pompeii - The Buried City - an overview
*
The Wonders of Pompeii, by Marc Monnier, 1871, from
Project Gutenberg*
Extensive Pompeii photo library at servius.org
