Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism is a form of
Protestant Christianity, primarily in the Reformed branch of Christendom, as well as a particular form of church government. Its primary tenets include the
Five solas: Scripture alone, faith alone, Christ alone, grace alone, glory to God alone. It is practised by many (although not all) of those Protestant churches which historically subscribed to the teachings of
John Calvin (known as
Reformed churches). Presbyterianism traces its institutional roots back to the
Scottish Reformation, especially as led by
John Knox. There are many separate Presbyterian Churches in different nations around the world. Besides national distinctions, Presbyterians also have divided from one another for doctrinal reasons, especially in the wake of
the Enlightenment. Theologically, Presbyterianism has a high emphasis on the sovereignty of God in all things, including human salvation, a high regard for the authority of Scripture, and an emphasis on the necessity of personal conversion by grace through faith in Christ Jesus alone.
These denominations derive their name from the
Greek word
presbyteros (), which means "elder."
Presbyterian church governance is common to the Protestant churches that were most closely modelled after the
Reformation in
Switzerland. In England, Scotland and Ireland, the Reformed churches that adopted a Presbyterian instead of
Episcopal government became known, naturally enough, as the Presbyterian Church.
John Knox (
1505-
1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under
Calvin in
Geneva, returned to Scotland and led the Parliament of Scotland to embrace the Reformation in
1560. The
Church of Scotland was eventually reformed along Presbyterian lines. In Ireland the Presbyterian Church was formed from the Church of Scotland and later became the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland. In
England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in
1572, toward the end of the reign of
Elizabeth I of England. In
1647, by an act of the
Long Parliament under the control of
Puritans, the
Church of England embraced Presbyterianism. The re-establishment of the monarchy in
1660 brought the return of
Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in non-conformity, outside of the established church. However, by the
19th century most English Presbyterian congregations had become
Unitarian in doctrine.
In
Ireland, Presbyterianism was introduced by Scottish immigrants and missionaries to
Ulster. The Presbytery of Ulster was formed separately from the established church, in
1642. Presbyterians, along with Roman
Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory
Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. All three, very diverse branches of Presbyterianism, as well as
independents, and some Dutch, German, and French Reformed denominations, combined in America to form what would eventually become the
Presbyterian Church USA (
1706).
In England, a number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants in the
19th century. Those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined the Presbyterian Church of England. Although the United Free Church of Scotland united with the Church of Scotland in 1929, the English churches linked with that denomination did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Churches of Scotland in England such as those at Crown Court (Covent Garden), and Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form the
United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were
Tunley (Lancashire) and
Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) - these are the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century.
In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of Church Government have organised in England, including the
International Presbyterian Church planted by
Francis Schaeffer of
L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and the
Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales was started in the North of England in the late 1980s.
In
Wales Presbyterianism is represented by the
Presbyterian Church of Wales.
In
Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination was the
Presbyterian Church in Canada, formed in 1875, about seventy percent of congregations, merged in
1925 with the
Methodist Church, Canada, and the
Congregational Union of Canada to form the
United Church of Canada; a sizeable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern Ontario, but covering the nation, withdrew from the institutional Presbyterian Church in Canada, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body.
Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by both doctrine and institutional organization, or, as they prefer to call it, "church order". The origins of the Presbyterian churches were in
Calvinism, which is no longer emphasized in some of the contemporary branches. Many of the branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy between the more liberal and the more conservative members. Some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Calvinist
Westminster Confession of Faith, which historically serves as the main constitutional document of Presbyterian churches. Those groups that adhere to the document most strictly are typified by: baptism of the infant children of believers, a common
communion cup, limiting eligibility for ordination to the offices of pastor of elder to men only, and a fully Calvinist doctrine of salvation.
Presbyterian government is based on Elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene as a 'Kirk Session' (commonly referred to as simply 'session') responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local
congregation. Usually, especially in larger congregations, the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation are delegated to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a 'Board', 'Diaconate', or 'Deacons' Court'. Teaching elders (ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues a call for the minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the Presbytery.
Above the Kirk Sessions exist Presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of ministers and elders from each of the constituent congregations. The Presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional assembly, generally known as the
General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a
synod sometimes exists. This
congregation /
presbytery /
synod /
general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the
Church of Scotland or the
Presbyterian Church (USA) (
PCUSA); some of the smaller bodies, such as the
Presbyterian Church in America or the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod. The
Church of Scotland has now abolished the Synod.
Presbyterians place great importance upon education and continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church. It is generally considered that the point of such learning is to enable one to put one's faith into practice; most Presbyterians generally exhibit their faith in action as well as words, by generosity, hospitality, and the constant pursuit of social justice and reform, as well as proclaiming the gospel of Christ.
Even before Presbyterianism spread abroad from Scotland there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family, some of which later rejoined only to separate again. In rueful self-reproach some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split P's".
In North America, because of past doctrinal differences, Presbyterian churches often overlap, with congregations of many different Presbyterian groups in any one city. The largest Presbyterian denomination in the United States is the
Presbyterian Church (USA). Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the
Presbyterian Church in America, the
Orthodox Presbyterian Church, the
Evangelical Presbyterian Church, the
Reformed Presbyterian Church, the
Bible Presbyterian Church, the
Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP Synod), the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church, and the
Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS). This image shows the evolution of Presbyterianism in the United States.
 |
Courtesy of the Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA. |
Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition, which means that the doctrines taught in the church are compared to a doctrinal standard. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to "confessionalism." The manner of
subscription, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, turns out to be a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard.
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the
Westminster Confession of Faith, as the doctrinal standard to which ministers are required to subscribe, in contrast to the
Larger and
Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the
Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine "subordinate to the Bible." These documents are
Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation, although some versions of the
Confession and the catechisms are more overtly Calvinist than some other, later American
revisions.
The
Presbyterian Church USA has adopted the
Book of Confessions, which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the
Westminster documents. These other documents include ancient creedal statements, (the
Nicene Creed, the
Apostles' Creed), 16th century Reformed confessions (the
Scots Confession, the
Heidelberg Catechism, the
Second Helvetic Confession, all of which were written before Calvinism had developed as a particular strand of Reformed doctrine), and 20th century documents (
The Theological Declaration of Barmen and the
Confession of 1967).
Presbyterians who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the
Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland.
* Stewart J Brown.
The National Churches of England, Ireland, and Scotland, 1801-46 (2001)
* Andrew Lang.
John Knox and the Reformation (1905)
* William Klempa, ed.
The Burning Bush and a Few Acres of Snow: The Presbyterian Contribution to Canadian Life and Culture (1994)
* Marsden, George M.
The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience (1970)
* Mark A Noll.
Princeton And The Republic, 1768-1822 (2004)
* Frank Joseph Smith,
The History of the Presbyterian Church in America, Reformation Education Foundation, Manassas, VA 1985
* William Warren Sweet,
Religion on the American Frontier, 1783â€"1840, vol. 2, The Presbyterians (1936), primary sources
* Ernest Trice Thompson.
Presbyterians in the South vol 1: to 1860; Vol 2: 1861-1890; Vol 3: 1890-1972. (1963-1973)
* Leonard J. Trinterud,
The Forming of an American Tradition: A Re-examination of Colonial Presbyterianism (1949)
*
Encyclopedia of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (1884)
*
Christianity*
Protestant Reformation*
Reformed churches*
Vestments controversy*
Westminster Confession of FaithChurches
*
List of Presbyterian church denominationsColleges and graduate schools
*
Austin Theological Seminary*
Calvin College*
Columbia Theological Seminary*
Dubuque Theological Seminary*
Hope College*
Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary*
McCormick Theological Seminary*
Pittsburgh Theological Seminary*
Princeton Theological Seminary*
Union Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education*
Covenant College *
Covenant Theological Seminary*
Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary*
Mid-America Reformed Theological Seminary*
Presbyterian Theological Faculty Ireland*
Westminster Theological Seminary*
Calvin University*
The Presbyterian College, Montreal*
Whitefield Theological Seminary*
Emmanuel College (United Church of Canada)
*
Knox College, Toronto*
University of Tulsa*
Vancouver School of Theology*
School of Ministry,
Knox College,
Dunedin,
Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand*
Presbyterian Theological Centre,
Sydney,
Presbyterian Church of Australia*
Presbyterian Theological College,
Melbourne, Presbyterian Church of Australia.
*
Erskine College*
Erskine Theological Seminary*
Reformed Theological SeminaryPeople
*
John Calvin*
John Knox*
List of notable American Presbyterians*
List of famous Australian Presbyterians
