Prime Minister
|
Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. |
A
Prime Minister is the most senior minister of a
cabinet in the
executive branch of
government in a
parliamentary system. They are usually, but need not always be, a
politician. In many systems the Prime Minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the Government. In most systems they are the presiding member and
chairperson of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in
semi-presidential system of government, a prime minister is the official who is appointed to manage the
civil service and execute the directives of the
President.
In parliamentary systems like the
United Kingdom's
Westminster system, the prime minister is the presiding
head of the government while the position of
head of state (the King, Queen, President, or Governor-General [de facto]), who may officially be the head of the executive, is largely ceremonial. The Prime Minister is often, but not always, a
member of parliament and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the
legislature. In some
monarchies the prime minister also exercises executive powers (known as the
Royal Prerogative) which are constitutionally vested in the Crown and can be exercised without the approval of parliament.
As well as being Head of Government, a prime minister may have other roles or titles—the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for example, is also
First Lord of the Treasury.
[Contrary to popular perception the two posts are separate and need not be held by the one person. The last prime minister not to be First Lord of the Treasury was Lord Salisbury at the turn of the 20th century. 10 Downing Street is actually the First Lord's residence, not the Prime Minister's. As Salisbury was not First Lord he had to live elsewhere as prime minister.] Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts—for example during the
Second World War Winston Churchill was also
Minister of Defence (although there was then no
Ministry of Defence).
Historically, prime ministers are often referred to
Primus inter pares, a
Latin term translated as
First Among Equals, and which reflects the original concept of a prime minister as merely the first minister or most senior minister to the monarch, not the dominant or presiding minister, a role later assumed by many prime ministers in many states.
While the modern office of Prime Minister developed in the UK the first actual usage of the word Prime Minister or Premiere Minstre was used by
Cardinal Richelieu, when, in 1624 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France.
Louis XIV and his decendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers.The term Prime Minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the
United Kingdom. Since medieval times Kings of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were
Thomas Cromwell under
Henry VIII;
William Cecil, Lord Burghley under
Elizabeth I;
Clarendon under
Charles II and
Godolphin under
Queen Anne. These ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as "the Minister," the "first Minister" and finally the "Prime Minister."
The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the Monarch. Although managing the Parliament was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a
Cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the Monarch, and the Monarch usually presided over its meetings. When the Monarch tired of a first minister, they could be dismissed, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister becoming too powerful. Late in Anne's reign, for example, the
Tory ministers
Harley and
St. John shared power.
The turning point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of
George I. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in
Hannover, and had neither knowledge of nor interest in the details of English government. In these circumstances it was inevitable that the King's first minister would become the
de facto head of the government. From 1721 this was the
Whig politician
Robert Walpole, who held office for twenty-one years. Walpole chaired Cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the
House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of Cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than him have private dealings with the King, and also that when the Cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public or resign. As a later Prime Minister,
Lord Melbourne, said: "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing."
Walpole always denied that he was a "Prime Minister," and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the Constitution. The title was first referred to on Government documents during the administration of
Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British
Order of precedence until 1905.
George II and
George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the Monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime Prime Minister
Pitt the Younger (
1783-
1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated the power of the post. By the reign of
Queen Victoria it was undisputed that the Prime Minister was real ruler of the country, although his power was always conditional on the support of a majority in the Commons.
In the history of Peru, thirteen prime ministers have been slain by their spouses. Popular speculation indicates the murders resulted from the prime ministers having extra-marital affairs.
The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the
British Empire saw the British model of Cabinet government, headed by a Prime Minister, widely copied, both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self-government. In some places alternative titles such as "Premier," "Chief Minister," "First Minister of State", "President of the Council" or "Chancellor" were adopted, but the essentials of the office were the same. By the late 20th century the majority of the world's countries had a Prime Minister or equivalent minister, holding office under either a
constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president. The main exceptions to this system have been the
United States and the presidential republics in Latin America, modelled on the U.S. system, in which the President directly exercises executive authority.
The post of prime minister is one which may be encountered both in constitutional
monarchies (such as
Belgium,
Denmark,
Japan,
The Netherlands,
Norway,
Spain,
Canada,
Australia, and the
United Kingdom), and in
republics in which the head of state is an elected (such as
France,
Finland,
Ireland,
Romania) or unelected official (such as
India,
Germany) with varying degrees of real power. This contrasts with the
presidential system, in which the
President (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. See also "
First Minister" , "
Premier", "
Chief Minister" "
Chancellor" and "
Taoiseach": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister."
In some
presidential or
semi-presidential systems such as those of
France,
Russia,
South Korea, or
Taiwan the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the President but approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the President and managing the civil service. In these systems, it is possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political)
cohabitation.
In parliamentary systems a prime minister can enter into office by a number of means.
*
By appointment by the Head of State, without reference to parliament: In most
Westminster systems (including
Australia,
Canada,
New Zealand,
India and the
United Kingdom) the appointment of the Prime Minister is a royal prerogative exercised by the Queen or the Governor-General. No parliamentary vote takes place on who is forming a government. However as the government will have to outline its legislative programme to parliament in the
Speech from the Throne, the speech is sometimes used to test parliamentary support. A defeat on the Speech is taken to mean a
Loss of Confidence and so requires either a new draft (a humiliating act no government would contemplate), resignation, or a request for a dissolution of parliament. Until the early
20th century governments when defeated in a general election remained in power until their Speech from the Throne was defeated and then resigned. No government has done so for one hundred years, though
Edward Heath in 1974 did delay his resignation while he explored whether he could form a government with
Liberal support. :In such systems unwritten (and unenforceable) constitutional conventions often outline the order in which people are asked to form a government. If the Prime Minister resigns after a general election, the monarch usually asks the Leader of the Opposition to form a government. Where however a resignation occurs during a parliament (unless the government has itself collapsed) the monarch will ask another member of the government to form a government. While previously the monarch had some leeway in whom to ask, all British political parties now elect their leaders (until 1965 the
Conservatives chose their leader by informal consultation). The last time the monarch had a choice over the appointment occurred in 1963 when the
Earl of Home was asked to become Prime Minister ahead of
Rab Butler.
*
Appointment by the head of state after parliament nominates a candidate; Example: The
Republic of Ireland where the
President of Ireland appoints the
Taoiseach on the nomination of the
Dáil Éireann.)
*
The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment as prime minister; Example:
Spain, where the King sends a nomination to parliament for approval. Also
Germany where under the
Basic Law (constitution) the
Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the Federal President. In these cases, parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state.)
*
The head of state appoints a prime minister who has a set timescale within which s/he must gain a vote of confidence; (Example:
Italy.)
*
Direct election by parliament (the
premiers of the
Northwest Territories and
Nunavut); and the
Chief Minister of the
Australian Capital Territory*
Direct election by the public (Example:
Israel, 1996-2001.); The prime minister is elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation.
*
Appointment by a state office holder other than the head of state or his/her representative; Example: Under the modern
Instrument of Government 1974, which came into force in 1975, the power of commissioning someone to form a government was moved from the
Monarch of Sweden to the Speaker of Parliament, who, once it has been approved, formally makes the appointment.
Though most prime ministers are 'appointed', they are often inaccurately described as 'elected'.The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution in individuals.
Australia's Constitution makes no mention of a
Prime Minister of Australia.
Canada's constitution, being a 'mixed' or hybrid constitution (a constitution that is partly formally codified and partly uncodified) makes no mention of a Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is formally the presiding minister of the
Privy Council and the cabinet.
Germany's Basic Law (1949) lists the powers, functions and duties of the federal
Chancellor.
Malta's Constitution of Malta (1964) lists the powers, functions and duties of the
Prime Minister of Malta.
The
Republic of Ireland's constitution,
Bunreacht na hÉireann (1937) provided for the office of Taoiseach in detail, listing powers, functions and duties.
The
United Kingdoms's constitution, being
uncodified and largely unwritten, makes no mention of a
Prime Minister. Though it had
de facto existed for centuries, its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century.
|
Helen Clark, the current Prime Minister of New Zealand. |
Contrary to popular and
journalistic belief, most prime ministers in
parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term of office and in effect may remain in power through a number of
elections and parliaments. For example,
Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on
one occasion, in 1979. She remained
continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each
House of Commons after a
general election to
reshuffle her cabinet. Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office on the parliament. Hence the
Irish Taoiseach is formally '
renominated' after every general election. (Some
constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which
appear to suggest a
taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a
renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.
In parliamentary systems,
governments are generally required to have the confidence of the
lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block
Supply to
upper houses, in effect make the
cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a
vote of confidence, have a
motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose Supply, most
constitutional systems require either:
a) a letter of resignation or
b) a request of a parliamentary dissolution.
The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the
opposition of parliament to the
electorate. However in many
jurisdictions a head of state
may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution. Older constitutions often vest this power in the
cabinet. (In the
United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the
entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922
Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the
Executive Council (the then name for the Irish
cabinet).
A number of different terms are used to describe prime ministers. The German prime minister is actually titled
Federal Chancellor while the Irish prime minister is called the
Taoiseach. In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder; the Spanish prime minister is the
President of the Government (
Presidente del Gobierno). Other common forms include
President of the Council of Ministers (for example in
Italy,
Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri),
President of the Executive Council, or
Minister-President. In
federations, the head of government of
subnational entities like
states or
provinces is most commonly known as the
Premier,
Chief Minister or
Minister-president.
In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of
Excellency like a President.
Irish
political scientist Professor
Brian Farrell coined the term "Chairman or Chief" or describe the two alternative concepts of prime ministerial leadership, in his book of the same name about the office of
Taoiseach.
[Brian F. Farrell, Chairman or Chief? The Role of Taoiseach in Irish Government (1971) ] The term, widely used in political science worldwide, draws a distinction between a head of government who is merely a facilitator and co-ordinator of a cabinet (the "chairman"), and those who lead it forcefully from the front, setting its policy agenda and requiring all ministers to follow the leader's policies (the "chief").
Examples of "chairmen" have included
Bertie Ahern (Ireland),
John Major (United Kingdom) and
Couvre de Murville (France), while examples of chiefs included
Sean Lemass (Ireland),
Margaret Thatcher (United Kingdom) and
Jacques Chirac under
cohabitation.
Not every prime minister fits exclusively into either category:
Eamon de Valera, though a dominant personality only was interested in controlling some of his government's agenda (usually constitutional matters and Anglo-Irish affairs), allowing large areas to besided by his colleagues. Though superficially a chief (and called "the Chief" by his colleagues) historians see him as more of a chairman, particularly in later governments.
Winston Churchill too, though superficially a "chief", was more chairmanlike in later governments and in those areas in which he had little personal interest.
As well as describing office holders, individual offices could be described as belonging to one or other category. Among the more dominant prime ministerial offices in terms of powers, and so more chieflike, are the premierships of Ireland and Spain, where premiers can hire and fire at will. In contrast, offices such as
President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State, Prime Minister of the Third French Republic, and the premierships of
Belgium and
The Netherlands are more chairmanlike in format. Lijphart referred to the premiership of the Netherlands as
"primus inter pares without due emphasis on
primus".
[Jean Blondel & Ferdinand Muller-Rommel (eds) Cabinets in Western Europe Macmillan, 1993 edition. p.81.]Wilfried Martens, who served as Prime Minister of Belgium, described his role as follows:
First of all [the Prime Minister] must listen a lot, and when deep disagreements occur, he must suggest a solution to the matter. This can be done in different ways. Sometimes during the discussion, I note the elements of the problem and think of a proposal I can formulate to the Council (cabinet), the Secretary taking notes. The Ministers then insist on changing commas and full stops. The Prime Minister can also make a proposal which leaves enough room for amendments in order to keep the current discussion on the right tracks. When a solution must be found in order to reach a consensus, he can force one or two Ministers to join or resign.
[Wilfried Martens, quoted in ibid.]*
Prime Minister of Australia*
Chancellor of Austria*
Chancellor of China*
Prime Minister of Belgium*
Prime Minister of Canada*
Prime Minister of Denmark*
Prime Minister of France*
Prime Minister of Fiji*
Chancellor of Germany*
Prime Minister of India*
Prime Minister of Iran*
Taoiseach of Ireland*
Prime Minister of Israel*
Prime Minister of Japan*
Prime Minister of Malaysia*
Prime Minister of Nepal*
Prime Minister of the Netherlands**Prime Minister of the
Netherlands Antilles:
Emily de Jongh-Elhage**Prime Minister of
Aruba:
Nelson O. Oduber*
Prime Minister of Newfoundland (historical)
*
Prime Minister of New Zealand*
Prime Minister of Norway*
Prime Minister of Pakistan*
Prime Minister of Peru*
Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland*
Prime Minister of Romania*
Prime Minister of Rwanda*
Prime Minister of Serbia*
Prime Minister of Slovenia*
President of the Government of Spain*
Prime Minister of Sweden*
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom*
Prime Minister of SingaporeThe following table groups the list of past and present prime ministers and details information available in those lists.
*
Chancellor*
List of democracy and elections-related topics*
President*
Monarch*
Governor-General*
Head of state*
List of national leaders*
Heads of state timeline*
Website of the Prime Minister of Australia*
Website of the Prime Minister of Barbados*
Website of the Prime Minister of Belgium*
Website of the Prime Minister of Canada*
Website of the Prime Minister of Croatia*
Website of the Prime Minister of France*
Website of the Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic (Greece)*
Website of the Prime Minister of Hungary*
Website of the Prime Minister of Iceland*
Website of the Prime Minister of India*
Website of the Taoiseach of Ireland*
Website of the Prime Minister of Israel*
Website of the Prime Minister of Italy*
Website of the Prime Minister of Japan*
Website of the Prime Minister of South Korea*
Website of the Prime Minister of Malaysia*
Website of the Prime Minister of The Netherlands*
Website of the Prime Minister of New Zealand*
Website of the Prime Minister of Norway*
Website of the Prime Minister of Poland*
Website of the Chairman of Serbia and Montenegro Council*
Website of the Prime Minister of Slovenia*
Website of the President of the Government of Spain*
Website of the Prime Minister of Singapore*
Website of the Prime Minister of Thailand*
Website of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago
