Protestantism

Protestantism is one of three main groups currently within Christianity. The term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of perspectives, denominations, individuals, and related organizations. While no particular belief or practice can be said to define this branch of Christianity (indeed, its most commonly given definition is merely "any Christian denomination which is not Roman Catholic or Orthodox Christian"), those denominations considered to be well within the realm of Protestantism all have firm roots in the Protestant Reformation in Europe during the sixteenth century.

Definition and origins

Initially, the term protestant meant, "to be a witness" rather than, "to be against " as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply in the sense of one demonstrating against something. However, the Latin prefix pro is interpreted as "for"; the Latin adjective protestans refers to a person who gives public testimony, or one who proves or demonstrates (thus giving the ambiguous circular sense of 'demonstrator' being confused with a 'protestor for' a thing). In the early years of the Reformation, the term Protestant applied to a group of princes and imperial cities who "protested" the decision by the 1529 Diet of Speyer to reverse course, and enforce the 1521 Edict of Worms. The 1521 edict forbade Lutheran teachings within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1526 session of the Diet had agreed to toleration of Lutheran teachings (on the basis of Cuius regio, eius religio) until a General Council could be held to settle the question. However, by 1529, the Roman Catholic authorities felt they had gathered enough power to end toleration without waiting for an official pronouncement from any council.

In a broader sense of the word, Protestant came to be used as the collective name for those individuals and churches who advocated a formal separation from the Roman Catholic Church such as John Wycliffe and Jan Hus. The roots of this movement are typically accredited to Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. However, following Luther's posting of the 95 Theses at Wittenburg, significant contributions to the Protestant cause were made by reformers like John Calvin, Zwingli, Thomas Cranmer, and John Knox.

In England and other regions of the United Kingdom, the word "Protestant" can be used to refer to the established Church of England. Protestants who are not members of the Church of England are further delineated as non-conformists. In German-speaking and Scandinavian countries, the word "Protestant" still refers specifically to national Lutheran churches (in contrast to Reformed churches), while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "Evangelical" - a word that is used to refer to specifically conservative Protestants in the United States. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the Religious Society of Friends), despite the reality that they recognize no historical connection to Luther, Calvin, or the Roman Catholic Church.

As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and West European universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, skilled tradesmen, and artisans. The new technology of the printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Christian Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Bishop of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "Enlightenment" of later centuries.

Basic theological tenets of the reformation

During the Reformation, several Latin slogans emerged, illustrating the Reformers' concern that the authorities of the Church had distorted the message of justification before God, and salvation in Jesus Christ. The Reformers believed it was necessary to return to the simplicity of the Gospel in terms of the issues designated by these slogans.

The solas

There were five Solas, four discussed here. The fifth, Soli deo gloria (to God alone the glory), was intended to underlie the other four. These slogans essentially became rallying cries to challenge the problems the Reformers believed they had identified, which are:
* Solus Christus: Christ alone.:The Protestants characterized the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man.
* Sola scriptura: Scripture alone.:Protestants believed that the Roman Catholic church obscured the teaching of the Bible, and undermined its authority, by regarding Tradition and Papal Authority as infallible, regardless of whether it over-ruled or added to the doctrines of Scripture.
* Sola fide: Faith alone.:The Protestants characterized the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works, of penance and indulgences, masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and purgatory, as reliance upon other means for justification, in addition to faith in Jesus and his work on the cross.
* Sola gratia: Grace alone.:The Roman Catholic view of the means of salvation was believed by the Protestants to be a mixture of reliance upon the grace of God, and confidence in the merits of one's own works, performed in love. The Reformers posited that salvation is entirely comprehended in God's gifts, (i.e. God's act of free grace) dispensed by the Holy Spirit according to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without any regard for the merit of his works - for no one deserves salvation.

On the theological front, the Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper.

The real presence in the Lord's supper

Although most early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ (see Eucharist), they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ is present in Holy Communion.
*Lutherans hold to the Real Presence or Consubstantiation (although some Lutherans disapprove of Consubstantiation due to misunderstandings, it was Philip Melancthon's term used with Martin Luther's approval), which affirms the physical presence of Christ's true Body & Blood supernaturally "in, with, and under" the Consecrated Bread and Wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "...This IS my body...". According to the Lutheran Confessions of Faith the Sacramental Union takes place at the time of Consecration , when Christ's Word's of Institution are spoken by the celebrant . Lutheran teaching insists that the Consecrated Bread & Wine ARE the truly abiding and adorable Body & Blood of Christ in a Sacramental Union , while also affirming Christ's general presence at the Mass or Holy Supper.
*Reformed teaching concerning the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from Calvin to Zwingli. The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the real presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ,but merely WITH the Bread & Wine rather than in the Elements. Calvinists deny with Zwinglians that Christ makes himself present to the believer in the elements of the sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith -- toward which the supper is an outward & visible aid, this is often referred to as dynamic presence.
*A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism).
*Anglicans (members of the Church of England, the Episcopal Church in the USA, and other Protestant churches claiming the Anglican heritage recognize Christ's presence in the Eucharist in a specrtrum ( according to specific denominational , diocesan , and parochial emphasis ) ranging from acceptance of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, through the Lutheran position , to high Calvinistic notions . However ,the twenty-eigth & twenty ninth of the LATIN 39 Articles teach that Christ's Body & Blood in the Consecrated Elements are truly present in a spiritual modality .

In Protestant theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls, "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Him (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper only initially seem to be about the nature of bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation, and therefore secondarily about the nature of the Church. And, indirectly, about the nature of Christ.

Authority

See the articles Lay, Ordained and Priesthood of all believers

Authority in the Church

Many Protestant churches practice similar rituals to Catholicismâ€"chiefly baptism, communion, and matrimonyâ€"frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites (although this is not the case in some Lutheran and Anglican parishes).

Understanding of secular authority

*Lutheran - doctrine of the two kingdoms
*Reformed
*AnglicanRadical - Anabaptist and peace churches

The Kingdom of God

Later development

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups.

Pietism seventeenth century - Methodist movement eighteenth century

The German Pietist movement, together with the influence of the Puritan Reformation in England in the seventeenth century, were important influences upon John Wesley and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brotherhood from Germany.

The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.

Evangelicalism eighteenth century

Beginning at the end of eighteenth century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening), took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.

Pentecostalism twentieth century

Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the twentieth century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.

Modernism twentieth century

Modernism, or Liberalism, does not constitute a rigorous and well-defined school of theology, but is rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology.

Fundamentalism twentieth century

In reaction to liberal Bible critique, Fundamentalism arose in the twentieth century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error, and cultural conservatism, as important aspects of the Christian life.

Neo-orthodoxy twentieth century

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called Crisis theology, according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism.

Neo-evangelicalism mid twentieth century

Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the twentieth century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization.

Paleo-Orthodoxy in the late 20th and early 21st centuries

Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to Neo-evangelicalism but emphasising the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided Church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early Creeds and councils of the church as a means of properly understanding the Scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the theological giant of the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden.

Ecumenism twentieth and twenty-first centuries

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, The US-based United Church of Christ, The United Church of Canada and the Uniting Church in Australia. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement.

In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Roman Catholic Church signed The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of Justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although some conservative Lutherans did not agree to this resolution. On July 18, 2006 Delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. [1][2]

Protestant denominations

Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines.

According to the World Christian Encyclopedia (2001) by David B. Barrett, et al, there are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries". Every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.

Protestant families of denominations

Please note that only general families are listed here (tens of thousands of individual denominations exist); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large:
*Anabaptist
*Anglican / Episcopal
*Baptist
*Calvinist / Reformed / Congregational (See also United Church of Christ) and Presbyterian
*Evangelicalism
*Lutheran
*Methodist / Wesleyan and the Holiness movement
*Pentecostal and Charismatic
*Quakerism
*Restoration movement
*Non-denominational

Number of Protestants

There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Nearly 27% of all Christians today are Protestants.

Well-known protestant religious figures

In alphabetical order by century

Fifteenth century

*Jan Hus, Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death by Roman Catholic Church authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy.

Sixteenth century

*Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as Arminianism
*Heinrich Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
*John Calvin, French speaking Reformer from Geneva, theologian, founder of school of thought known as Calvinism
*Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry VIII, leader of the English Reformation
*John Knox, Scottish Calvinist reformer,
*Martin Luther, German religious reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
*Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
*Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism
*Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition

Seventeenth - nineteenth centuries

*Jacob Amman, founder of the Amish church
*Francis Asbury, early bishop of American Methodism
*Jonathan Edwards, American Puritan theologian, Great Awakening reformist preacher, Calvinist
*George Fox, Founder of the Religious Society of Friends
*William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I of England
*Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian considered founder of Liberal Christianity
*SÃ¸ren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher considered the "Father of Existentialism" and influenced Karl Barth and neo-orthodoxy theology.
*Joseph Smith, Jr., claimed to have been called by God to be a Prophet, the translator of The Book of Mormon and organizer of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism). Note: Mormonism is not held by all to be a sect of Protestantism and the Mormons (who prefer the name "Latter-day Saints") do not consider themselves to be Protestants. See Joseph Smith's .
*Philipp Jakob Spener, "godfather" of the Pietist movement
*Charles Wesley, Anglican priest, Methodist leader, poet, & hymn writer
*John Wesley, Anglican priest, founder of the Methodist movement
*George Whitefield, Great Awakening reformist preacher
*William Booth, founder of the Salvation Army, renowned for his treatise In Darkest England and the Way Out
*Edward Irving, Scottish clergyman, generally (but wrongly) regarded as the founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church

Twentieth century

*Karl Barth, Swiss theologian along with Emil Brunner known for Dialectical theology and Neo-orthodox theology
*Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian, involved in the resistance against Nazism and executed shortly before the end of World War 2
*Jerry Falwell, American evangelist and political activist
*Austin Farrer, Anglican theologian, preacher, and philosopher
*Billy Graham, American evangelist
*Nicky Gumbel, Anglican British evangelist
*Martin Luther King, Jr., peace and civil rights activist
*C. S. Lewis, Anglican novelist, literary scholar, and lay theologian
*Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologion and ethicist
*H. Richard Niebuhr, American theologion and ethicist
*Pat Robertson, American charismatic/evangelical leader
*Paul Tillich, Lutheran existentialist theologian
*Desmond Tutu, Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, South Africa, peace activist
*John Howard Yoder, Mennonite theologian and ethicist
*James Dobson, American psychologist and conservative activist, founder of Focus on the Family Ministry
*Charles Swindoll, American theologian, author, pastor, founder of Insight for Living

Twenty first century

*Marcus Borg, American Episcopal theologian (Lutheran background)
*John B. Cobb, theologian, involved in Process Theology
*Franklin Graham, American evangelist (son of Billy Graham)
*Stanley Hauerwas, American Christian theologian and ethicist
*Ian Paisley, Moderator of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster also a senior politician in Northern Ireland, UK
*John Shelby Spong, Former (Episcopal) Bishop of Newark, New Jersey
*N.T. Wright, Anglican Bishop of Durham and New Testament scholar
*Thomas C. Oden, United Methodist presbyter and theologian
*Brian McLaren, "emergent church" guru
*William Willimon, United Methodist Bishop and theologian

External links

Protestantism: Encyclopedia BETA

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