thumb|320px|Power spectrum of a pumped-storage hydroelectricity. Green represents power consumed in pumping; red is power generated.]]
Pumped storage hydroelectricity is a method of storing and producing electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations.
At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as pump and turbine (usually a francis turbine design). Some facilities use abandoned mines as the lower reservoir, but many use the height difference between two natural bodies of water or artificial reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the water between reservoirs, but combined pump-storage plants also generate their own electricity like conventional hydroelectric plants through natural stream-flow. Plants that do not use pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants.
Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses, approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical energy used to pump the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained. The technique is currently the most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy.
The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either a very large body of water or a large variation in height. For example, 1000 kilograms of water (1 cubic meter) at the top of a 100 meter tower has a potential energy of about 0.272 kW·h. The only way to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located on a hill relatively near, but as high as possible above, a second body of water. In some places this occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water have been man-made.
This system is economical because it flattens out load variations on the power grid, permitting thermal power stations such as coal-fired plants and nuclear power plants that provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency while reducing the need for "peaking" power plants that use costly fuels.
Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical network frequency and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency and voltage instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes within seconds.
The upper reservoir (Llyn Stwlan) and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in north Wales. The lower power station has four water turbines which generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the need arising. The size of the dam can be judged from the car parked below.
The first use of pumped storage was in the 1890s in Italy and Switzerland. In the 1930s reversible hydroelectric turbines became available. These turbines could operate as both turbine-generators and in reverse as electric motor driven pumps. The latest in large-scale engineering technology are variable speed machines for greater efficiency. These machines generate in synchronisation with the network frequency, but operate asynchronously (independent of the network frequency) as motor-pumps.
In 2000 the United States had 19.5 GW of pumped storage capacity. This produced a net -5.5 GW of power because they consume more energy filling their reservoirs than they generate by emptying them.
In 1999 the EU had 32 GW capacity of pumped storage out of a total of 188 GW of hydropower and representing 5.5% of total electrical capacity in the EU.
The use of underground reservoirs as lower dams has been investigated. Salt mines could be used, although ongoing and unwanted dissolution of salt could be a problem. If they prove affordable, underground systems could greatly expand the number of pumped storage sites.
Saturated brine is substantially heavier than fresh water or seawater. A pump-generator located on the bottom of a lake or the ocean could facilitate water transit between a floating or shoreline reservoir and a deep water storage bladder. This option may not be feasible.
Note that Norway has a high density of hydroelectric power generation, so some of the following locations are simply pumps that never generate power themselves, but transfer water to reservoirs where it can be re-used by existing hydroelectric power stations. This information comes from [1], [2], and [3] *Aurland III, Hordaland *Breive, Bykle, Aust-Agder *Duge, Rogaland *Hjorteland, Rogaland *Hunnevatn, Rogaland *Jukla, Hordaland, 40 MW *Kastdalen, Hordaland *Mardal, Møre og Romsdal *Monge, Møre og Romsdal *Nygard, Modalen, Hordaland *Saurdal, Rogaland, 640 MW *Skarje, Bykle, Aust-Agder *Skjeggedal, Hordaland *Stølsdal, Rogaland, 17 MW *Tverrvatn, Nordland
