Reasoning
Reasoning is defined very differently depending on the context of the understanding of
reason as a form of knowledge. The logical definition is the act of using
reason to derive a
conclusion from certain
premises using a given
methodology, and the two most commonly used explicit methods to reach a conclusion are
deductive reasoning and
inductive reasoning. However, within idealist philosophical contexts, reasoning is the mental process which informs our imagination, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings with whatever intelligibility these appear to contain; and thus links our experience with universal meaning. The specifics of the methods of reasoning are of interest to such disciplines as
philosophy,
logic,
psychology, and
artificial intelligence.
In deductive reasoning, given true premises, the conclusion must follow and it cannot be false. In this type of reasoning, the conclusion is inherent in the premises. Deductive reasoning therefore does not increase one's knowledge base and is said to be non-ampliative. Classic examples of deductive reasoning are found in such
syllogisms as the following:
#All human beings are mortal.:#Socrates is a human being.:#Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In inductive reasoning, on the other hand, when the premises are true, then the conclusion follows with some degree of
probability. This method of reasoning is ampliative, as it gives more information than what was contained in the premises themselves. A classical example comes from
David Hume:
#The sun rose in the east every morning up until now.:#Therefore the sun will also rise in the east tomorrow.
A third method of reasoning is called
abductive reasoning, or inference to the best explanation. This method is more complex in its structure and can involve both inductive and deductive arguments. The main characteristic of abduction is that it is an attempt to favor one conclusion above others by either attempting to falsify alternative explanations, or showing the likelihood of the favored conclusion given a set of more or less disputable
assumptions.
A fourth method of reasoning is
analogy. Reasoning by analogy goes from a particular to another particular. The conclusion of an analogy is only
plausible. Analogical reasoning is very frequent in
common sense,
science,
philosophy and the
humanities, but sometimes it is accepted only as an auxiliary method. A refined approach is
Case based reasoning. On inferences by analogy, see
Juthe, 2005.
*
Casuistry*
Categorical syllogism*
Defeasible reasoning*
Evidence*
Inference*
Logic *
Logical reasoning*
Retroduction*
Vincent F. Hendricks,
Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 8799101378
*
Zarefsky, David. "Formal and Informal Argument: Lecture 3," Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning Part I, The Teaching Company.
* Zarefsky, David. "Reasoning from Parts to Whole: Lecture 10," Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning Part I, The Teaching Company.
