Research
:
Research is often described as an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting and revising
facts. This
intellectual investigation produces a greater understanding of events,
behaviors, or
theories, and makes practical applications through
laws and theories. The term
research is also used to describe a collection of
information about a particular subject, and is usually associated with
science and the
scientific method.
The word
research derives from Middle French (see
French language); its literal meaning is 'to investigate thoroughly'.
Thomas Kuhn, in his book
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, traces an interesting history and analysis of the enterprise of research.
Basic research (also called
fundamental or
pure research) has as its primary objective the advancement of
knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables (see
statistics). It is
exploratory and often driven by the researcher's
curiosity, interest, or hunch. It is conducted without any practical end in mind, although it may have unexpected results pointing to practical applications. The terms "basic" or "fundamental" indicate that, through theory generation, basic research provides the foundation for further, sometimes applied research. As there is no guarantee of short-term practical gain, researchers often find it difficult to obtain funding for basic research. Research is a subset of invention
Examples of questions asked in basic research:
* Does
string theory provide
physics with a
grand unification theory?
* Which aspects of
genomes explain organismal complexity?
* Is it possible to prove or disprove
Goldbach's conjecture? (i.e. that every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two (not necessarily distinct) primes)
Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; its primary aim is not to gain knowledge for its own sake. It can be
exploratory, but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by
academic or
industrial institutions. Often, an academic instituion such as a
university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program. Common areas of applied research include
electronics,
informatics,
computer science,
material science,
process engineering,
drug design...
Examples of question asked in applied research:
* How can
Canada's
wheat crops be protected from grasshoppers?
* What is the most efficient and effective
vaccine against
influenza?
* How can
communication among workers in large companies be improved?
* How can the
Great Lakes be protected against the effects of
greenhouse gas?
* How can a policy on
time use increase transit services to low-income neighbourhoods?
There are many instances when the distinction between basic and applied research is not clear. It is not unusual for researchers to present their project in such a light as to 'slot' it into either applied or basic research, depending on the requirements of the
funding sources. The question of
genetic codes is a good example. Unraveling it for the sake of
knowledge alone would be basic research – but what, for example, if knowledge of it also has the benefit of making it possible to alter the code so as to make a plant commercially viable? Some say that the difference between basic and applied research lies in the time span between research and reasonably foreseeable practical applications.
The scope of the research
process is to produce some new knowledge. This, in principle, can take three main forms:
*
Exploratory research: a new problem can be structured and identified
*
Constructive research: a (new) solution to a problem can be developed
*
Empirical research:
empirical evidence on the feasibility of an existing solution to a problem can be provided
Research methods used by scholars:
*
Action research*
Case study*
Classification*
Experience and
intuition*
Experiments
*
Eye tracking*
Interviews
*
Map making*
Mathematical models and
simulations*
Participant observation*
Physical traces analysis*
Semiotics*
Statistical data analysis*
Statistical surveys
*
Content or Textual AnalysisResearch is often conducted using the hourglass model.
[Structure of Research, Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base.] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results.
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural
process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:
* Formation of the topic
*
Hypothesis*
Conceptual definitions
*
Operational definitions
* Gathering of
data* Analysis of data
* Conclusion, revising of hypothesis
A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis can be proven. Instead, by these methods no
hypothesis can be proven, rather a
hypothesis may only be disproven. A
hypothesis can survive several rounds of scientific testing and be widely thought of as true (or better, predictive), but this is not the same as it having been proven. It would be better to say that the
hypothesis has yet to be disproven.
A useful
hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the
hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new
hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, will supplant it.
Academic
publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic
scholars to
peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and
medicine.
Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields.
Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, emerging from the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early
1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, was very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.
Most funding for
scientific research comes from two major sources,
corporations (through
research and development departments) and government (primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors). Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend more than a trivial amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit. Some faculty positions require that the holder has received grants from certain institutions, such as the US
National Institutes of Health (NIH). Government-sponsored grants (e.g. from the NIH, the
National Health Service in Britain or any of the European research councils) generally have a high status.
*
Academic conference*
Demonstrative evidence*
Empirical research*
European Charter for Researchers*
Internet research*
Innovation*
Lab notebook*
Marketing research*
Open research*
Operations research*
Original research*
Participatory action research*
Psychological research methods*
Research and development*
Social research*
Social Research Collaboration Tool for Researchers
