Skepticism
In ordinary usage,
skepticism or
scepticism[Historically, skepticism was the correct spelling, but as with the -ize/-ise shift, the new form scepticism (pronounced the same way) was introduced in the late 18th and 19th centuries. It should be noted, however, that scepticism can lead to confusion as a ce or ci combination in English normally changes its sound, e.g. ceremony, century, certain, cipher, cider, and particularly sceptre. Thus, "sceptic" might be mispronunced as "septic".] (
Greek: skeptomai, to look about, to consider) refers to # an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object, # the
doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain, or # the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriamâ€"Webster).
In
philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about# the limitations of knowledge, # a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing, # the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values, # a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment, # a lack of confidence in positive motives for human conduct or positive outcomes for human enterprises, that is,
cynicism and
pessimism (Keeton, 1962).
In
classical philosophy, skepticism refers to the teachings and the traits of the
Skeptikoi, a school of philosophers of whom it was said that they "asserted nothing but only opined" (Liddell and Scott). In this sense,
philosophical skepticism, or
pyrrhonism, is the philosophical position that one should avoid the postulation of final truths. Turned on itself, skepticism would deny that it is infallibly certain that skepticism is the only basic perspective.
In
religion, skepticism refers to "doubt concerning basic religious principles (as immortality, providence, and revelation)" (Merriamâ€"Webster).
The word skepticism can characterize a position on a single claim, but in scholastic circles more frequently describes a lasting mindset and an approach to accepting or rejecting new information. Individuals who proclaim to have a skeptical outlook are frequently called
skeptics, often without regard to whether it is philosophical skepticism or empirical skepticism that they profess.
In
philosophical skepticism,
pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as "academic" skepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible.
Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and
nomothetic science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism."
Philosophical skepticism originated in ancient
Greek philosophy. One of its first proponents was
Pyrrho of
Elis (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as India, and propounded the adoption of 'practical' skepticism. Subsequently, in the 'New Academy'
Arcesilaos (c. 315-241 B.C.) and
Carneades (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of
Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible.
Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of
empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge.
Greek skeptics criticized the
Stoics, accusing them of
dogmatism. For the skeptics, the
logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the
regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity. In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a
circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth which could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in actual fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.
An empirical skeptic is one who refuses to accept certain kinds of claims without subjecting them to a systematic investigation. For many empirical skeptics, this process is akin to the
scientific method. This does not mean that the empirical skeptic is necessarily a scientist who conducts live experiments (though this may be the case), but that the skeptic generally accepts claims that are in his/her view likely to be true based on testable
hypotheses and
critical thinking.
Most empirical skeptics do not profess philosophical skepticism. Whereas a philosophical skeptic may deny the very existence of knowledge, an empirical skeptic merely seeks likely proof before accepting that knowledge.
Scientific skepticism
Scientific skepticism is a branch of empirical skepticism that addresses scientific claims. Common topics in scientifically skeptical literature include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and medicines, such as
homeopathy,
Reiki,
Thought Field Therapy (TFT),
vertebral subluxations; the plausibility of
supernatural entities (such as
ghosts,
poltergeists,
angels, and
gods); as well as the existence of
ESP/
telekinesis,
psychic powers, and
telepathy; topics in
cryptozoology,
Bigfoot, the
Loch Ness monster,
UFOs,
crop circles,
astrology,
repressed memories,
creationism,
dowsing,
conspiracy theories, and other claims the skeptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds.
Religious skepticism
Religious skepticism is skepticism regarding faith-based claims. Religious skeptics may focus on the core tenets of
religions, such as the existence of divine beings, or reports of earthly
miracles. A religious skeptic is not necessarily an
atheist or
agnostic.
Activist skepticism
Activist skeptics, self-described "
debunkers" are a subset of empirical skeptics who aim to expose in public what they see as the truth behind specific extraordinary claims. Debunkers may publish books, air TV programs, create websites, or use other means to advocate their message. In some cases they may challenge claimants outright or even stage elaborate
hoaxes to prove their point.
Because debunkers often challenge popular ideas, many are not strangers to controversy. Critics of debunkers sometimes accuse them of robbing others of hope. Debunkers frequently reply that it is the claimant, whom they many times accuse of exploiting public gullibility, who is guilty of abuse.
Habitual debunkers, especially those who intentionally rely on pseudoscience masquerading as empirical skepticism, are sometimes called
pseudoskeptics or
pathological skeptics.
*
A Greek-English Lexicon,
Henry George Liddell and
Robert Scott, revised and augmented throughout by Sir
Henry Stuart Jones, with the assistance of
Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, 1940.
Online.
*
Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
* Butchvarov, Panayot, Skepticism About the External World (Oxford University Press, 1998).
*
Keeton, Morris T., "Scepticism", pp. 277â€"278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.),
Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
*
Runes, D.D. (ed.),
Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
*
Sextus Empiricus,
Outlines of Pyrrhonism,
R.G. Bury (trans.), Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1990.
Literary skeptics
*
Ambrose BierceThe Devil's Dictionary*
Ignacy KrasickiFables and Parables*
Bolesław PrusPharaoh*
VoltaireCandideOrganizations
*
Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal*
The Skeptics Society*
James Randi Educational Foundation*
Rationalist InternationalPrograms and films
Bullshit! - A television show that exposes ideas they believe to be unscientific or
pseudoscientific through critical thinking and scientific skepticism, and to expose promoters of such things.
MythBusters - A television show that tests myths and urban legends.
Skepticality - A
podcast that gives skepticism news and features interviews with famous skeptics.
The New England Skeptical Society - A
podcast featuring
debunking of
myths and
conspiracy theories, as well as discussion of scientific developments in
laymen's terms, and interviews with authors and other
famous skeptics.[
1]
Point of Inquiry - A
podcast and radio show for the
Center for Inquiry. [
2]
* Kleiner, Kurt (2005), "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong",
NewScientist, 30 Aug 2005.
Eprint.
*
Responding to Skepticism, by Keith DeRose. Introduction to
Skepticism: A Contemporary Reader (Oxford University Press, 1999). Describes the main lines of response to philosophical skepticism.
*
Skepticism and the Veil of Perception, book about philosophical skepticism & perceptual knowledge.
*
The Problem of Defeasible Justification, paper about philosophical skepticism.
*
The Skeptic Friends Network*
James Randi Educational Foundation*
Skepticality*
Skeptic's Dictionary*
Skeptic Report*
Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal*
Rationalist International*
Skeptics Society*
The problem of skepticism, explained at the Galilean Library
*
SkepticWiki Skeptic Encyclopedia Project* A critique of Gardner, "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of
General Semantics," by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in
General Semantics Bulletin, Number 71, 2004. The
Bulletin is published by the
Institute of General Semantics.
*
Peter Suber,
Classical Skepticism. An exposition of
Pyrrho's skepticism through the writings of
Sextus Empiricus.
*
Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century -
Skeptical Inquirer Magazine
