Sociology
Sociology is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the
social rules and
processes that bind and separate people not only as
individuals, but as members of
associations,
groups, and
institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short
contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of
global social processes. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties or subfields (
listed below).
The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-ology" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the stem "soci-" which is from the Latin word socius, meaning member, friend, or ally, thus referring to people in general. It is a
social science involving the study of the
social lives of
people,
groups, and
societies, sometimes defined as the study of
social interactions. It is a relatively new
academic discipline which evolved in the early 19th century.
Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example,
social stratification studies inequality and class structure;
demography studies changes in a population size or type;
criminology examines criminal behavior and deviance;
political sociology studies government and laws; and the
sociology of race and
sociology of gender examine society's racial and gender cleavages.
New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as
economic sociology and
network analysis - many of which are cross-disciplanary in nature.
Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating
public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as
survey research,
evaluation research, methodological
assessment, and
public sociology.
Sociological methods, theories, and concepts compel the sociologist to explore the origins of
commonly accepted rules governing human behavior. This specific approach to reality is known as the
sociological perspective.
Main article: History of sociology
Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other
social sciences including
economics,
political science,
anthropology,
history, and
psychology. The ideas behind it, however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a mixture of common human
knowledge and
philosophy.
Sociology as a scientific discipline emerged in the early 19th century as an academic response to the challenge of
modernity: as the world was becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world was increasingly atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an antidote to
social disintegration.
The term was coined by
Auguste Comte in 1838 from
Latin Socius (companion, associate) and
Greek lógos (speech). Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind--including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of sciences'.
The first book with the term 'sociology' in its title was
The Study of Sociology (1874) by the English philosopher
Herbert Spencer. In the United States,
Lester Frank Ward, described by some as the father of American sociology, published
Dynamic Sociology in 1883 and the discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the
University of Kansas,
Lawrence in 1890 under the course title
Elements of Sociology (the oldest continuing sociology course in America). The
Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 [
1],[
2], and the first full fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the
University of Chicago by
Albion W. Small, who in 1895 founded the
American Journal of Sociology [
3]. The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the
University of Bordeaux by
Émile Durkheim, founder of
L'Année Sociologique (1896). The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the
London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology) [
4] in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the
Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by
Max Weber and in 1920 in
Poland by
Florian Znaniecki.
International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when
René Worms founded the small
Institut International de Sociologie that was eclipsed by the much larger
International Sociological Association [
5] starting in 1949 (ISA). In 1905 the
American Sociological Association, the world's largest
association of professional sociologists, was founded.
Other "classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include
Karl Marx,
Ferdinand Tönnies,
Émile Durkheim,
Vilfredo Pareto, and
Max Weber. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed
religion,
education,
economics,
law,
psychology,
ethics,
philosophy, and
theology, and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic diciplines. Their most enduring influence, however, has been on sociology, (with the exception of Marx, who is a central figure in the field of economics as well) and it is in this field that their theories are still considered most applicable.
One shift in the discipline away from scientific explanation had philosophical roots. Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte, was to treat it in the same manner as natural science, applying the same methods and
methodology used in the natural sciences to study social phenomena. The emphasis on
empiricism and the
scientific method sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields like
philosophy. This methodological approach, called
positivism, became a source of contention between sociologists and other scientists, and eventually a point of divergence within the field itself. Thus, while most sciences evolved from
deterministic,
Newtonian models to
probabilistic models which accept and even incorporate
uncertainty, sociology began to cleave into those who believed in a deterministic approach (attributing variation to
structure, interactions, or other forces) and those who rejected the very possibility of explanation and prediction.
A second push away from scientific explanation was cultural, even sociological, itself. As early as the 19th century, positivist and naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by scientists like
Wilhelm Dilthey and
Heinrich Rickert, who argued that the natural world differs from the social world due to unique aspects of human society such as
meanings,
symbols,
rules,
norms, and
values. These elements of society both result in and generate human
cultures. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced
antipositivism (
humanistic sociology). According to this view, which is closely related to
antinaturalism, sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values. This has led to some controversy on how one can draw the line between
subjective and
objective research and has also influenced
hermeneutical studies. Similar disputes, especially in the era of the
Internet, have led to variations in sociology such as
public sociology, which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological expertise to abstracted audiences.
Main article: social theory and social philosophy
Social theory refers to the use of
abstract and often complex
theoretical frameworks to explain and analyze
social patterns and
macro social structures in
social life, rather than explaining patterns of social life. Social theory always had an uneasy relationship to the more classic
academic disciplines; many of its key thinkers never held a university position. While social theory is sometimes considered a branch of sociology, it is inherently
interdisciplinary, as it deals with multiple fields including
anthropology,
economics,
theology,
history,
philosophy, and many others. First social theories developed almost simultaneously with the birth of the sociology science itself.
Auguste Comte, known as 'father of sociology', also laid the groundwork for one of the first social theories -
social evolutionism. In the 19th century three great, classical theories of social and historical change were created: the
social evolutionism theory (of which
social darwinism is a part of), the
social cycle theory and the
Marxist historical materialism theory. Although the majority of 19th century social theories are now considered obsolete they have spawned new, modern social theories. Modern social theories represent some advanced version of the classical theories, like
Multilineal theories of evolution (
neoevolutionism,
sociobiology,
theory of modernisation,
theory of post-industrial society) or the general
historical sociology and the
theory of subjectivity and creation of the society.
Unlike disciplines within the
natural sciences social theorists may be less committed to use the
scientific method to vindicate their theories. Instead, they tackle very large-scale social trends and structures using
hypotheses that cannot be easily proved, except by historical and psychological interpretation, which is often the basis of criticism from opponents of social theories. Extremely critical theorists, such as
deconstructionists or
postmodernists, may argue that any systematic type of research or method is inherently flawed. Many times, however, "social theory" is defined without reference to science because the social reality it describes is so overarching as to be unprovable. The social theories of
modernity or
anarchy might be two examples of this.
However, social theories are a major part of the science of sociology. Objective science-based research can often provide support for explanations given by social theorists. Statistical research grounded in the scientific method, for instance, that finds a severe
income disparity between women and men performing the same occupation can complement the underlying premise of the complex social theories of
feminism or
patriarchy. In general, and particularly among adherents to
pure sociology, social theory has an appeal because it takes the focus away from the individual (which is how most humans look at the world) and focuses it on the society itself and the social forces which control our lives. This sociological insight (or
sociological imagination) has through the years appealed to students and others dissatisfied with the status quo because it carries the assumption that societal structures and patterns are either random, arbitrary or controlled by specific powerful groups -- thus implying the possibility of change. This has a particular appeal to champions of the underdog, the dispossessed, and/or those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder because it implies that their position in society is undeserved and/or the result of oppression.
Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining the groups and
social institutions people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the
behaviour of, and
social interaction among, groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group
activities on individual members. Sociologists are concerned with the characteristics of
social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person's daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization,
social stratification, and
social mobility;
racial and ethnic relations;
education;
family;
social psychology;
urban,
rural,
political, and
comparative sociology;
sex roles and
relationships;
demography;
gerontology;
criminology; and
sociological practice.
Although sociology emerged in large part from Comte's conviction that sociology eventually would subsume all other areas of scientific inquiry, in the end, sociology did not replace the other sciences. Instead, sociology came to be identified with the other social sciences (
psychology,
economics, etc.). Today, sociology studies humankind's
organizations,
social institutions and their
social interactions, largely employing a
comparative method. The discipline has concentrated particularly on the organization of complex
industrial societies. Recent sociologists, taking cues from anthropologists, have noted the "
Western emphasis" of the field. In response, many sociology departments around the world are encouraging multi-cultural and multi-national studies.
Today, sociologists research micro-
structures that organize society, such as
race or
ethnicity,
social class,
gender roles, and institutions such as the
family; social processes that represent
deviation from, or the breakdown of, these structures, including
crime and
divorce; and micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and the
socialization of individuals.
Sociologists often rely on
quantitative methods of
social research to describe large patterns in social relationships and in order to develop models that can help predict social
change. Other branches of sociology believe that
qualitative methods - such as focused
interviews, group discussions and
ethnographic methods - allow for a better understanding of social processes. Some sociologists argue for a middle ground that sees quantitative and qualitative approaches as complementary. Results from one approach can fill gaps in the other approach. For example, quantitative methods could describe large or general
patterns while qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals understand those patterns.
Social research methods
There are several main methods that sociologists use to gather
empirical evidence, which include
questionnaires,
interviews,
participant observation, and
statistical research.
The problem with all of these approaches is that they are all based on what theoretical position the researcher adopts to explain and understand the society the researcher sees in front of themselves. If one is a functionalist like
Émile Durkheim, one is likely to interpret everything in terms of large-scale social structures. A
symbolic interactionist is likely to concentrate on the way people understand one another. A researcher who is a
Marxist or a
neo-Marxist is likely to interpret everything through the grid of class struggle and economics.
Phenomenologists tend to think that there is only the way in which people construct their meanings of reality, and nothing else. One of the real problems is that many sociologists argue that only one theoretical approach is the "right" one, and it is theirs. In practice, sociologists often tend to mix and match different approaches and methods, since each method produces particular types of data.
The
Internet is of interest for sociologists in three ways: as a tool for
research, for example, in using
online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. Sociology of the Internet in the last sense includes analysis of
online communities (e.g. as found in
newsgroups),
virtual communities and
virtual worlds, organisational change catalysed through new media like the Internet, and societal change at-large in the transformation from
industrial to
informational society (or to
information society).
Sociology and other social sciences
In the early 20th century, sociologists and psychologists who conducted research in industrial societies contributed to the development of
anthropology. Anthropologists also conducted research in industrial societies. Today sociology and anthropology are better contrasted according to different theoretical concerns and methods rather than objects of study.
Sociobiology is a relatively new field to branch from both the sociology and
biology disciplines. Although the field once rapidly gained acceptance, it has remained highly controversial as it attempts to find ways in which social behavior and structures can be explained by evolutionary and biological processes. Sociobiologists are often criticized by sociologists for depending too greatly on the effects of genes in defining behavior. Sociobiologists often respond, however, by citing a complex relationship between nature and nurture. In this regard, sociobiology is closely related to
physical anthropology,
zoology,
evolutionary psychology,
human behavioral ecology, and
dual inheritance theory. Nonetheless, for most in the discipline, its ideas are unacceptable. Some sociobiologists, such as
Richard Machalek, call for the field of sociology to encompass the study of non-human societies along with human beings.
Sociology has some links with
social psychology, but the former is more interested in social structures and the latter in social behaviors. A distinction should be made between these and
forensic studies within these disciplines, particularly where
anatomy is involved. These latter studies might be better named as
Forensic psychology. As shown by the work of Marx and others,
economics has influenced sociological theories.
*
List of sociology topics*
Sociological perspective*
Sociological paradigm*
International Sociological Association*
American Sociological Association*
Association of Black Sociologists*
Mid-South Sociological Association*
Pacific Sociological Association*
New England Sociological Association*
Sociologists for Women in Society*
Sociologists Without Borders*
Socioeconomics*
Social disorganisation theory* John J. Macionis, Sociology (10th Edition), Prentice Hall, 2004, ISBN 0131849182
*
Piotr Sztompka, Socjologia, Znak, 2002, ISBN 8324002189
* Stephen H. Aby,
Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources. 3rd edn. Littleton, CO, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1563089475
*
Anthony Giddens,
Conversations with Anthony Giddens, Polity, Cambridge, 1998. A useful introduction to core themes in classical and contemporary sociology.
* Anthony Giddens,
Sociology, Polity, Cambridge
* Anthony Giddens,
Human Societies: Introduction Reading in Sociology* Robert A. Nisbet,
The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1967, ISBN 1560006676
* Evan Willis,
The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life, 3rd edn, New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1996, ISBN 0813523672
Self-study courses:
*
Free audio Lectures, An Introductory Sociology produced for the Trent University, Canada*
Lectures notes from Introduction to Sociology Course, East Carolina UniversityOther resources:
*
The Electronic Journal of Sociology*
History of Sociology*
American Sociological Association*
Analysing and Overcoming the Sociological Fragmentation in Europe: European Virtual Library of Sociology*
A Century of Sociology at University of Kansas, by Alan Sica (Adobe Acrobat PDF file)*
International Sociological Association*
Resources for methods in social research*
SocioSite - Social Sciences Information System*
Social theories and theorists*
The Sociolog. Comprehensive Guide to Sociology*
Theory.org.uk - idiosyncratic but content-rich social theory site by
David Gauntlett*
A Group Is Its Own Worst Enemy*
Sociowiki - Sociology wiki for graduate students
