Sri Lanka
To download Sinhala fonts, please see Wikipedia:Sinhala Font Guide.Sri Lanka, officially the
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (ශ්ර" ලංකා in
Sinhala, இலங்கை in
Tamil, known as
Ceylon before
1972), is a
tropical island nation off the
southeast coast of the
Indian subcontinent, about 31
kilometres (18½
mi) south of
India. It is in a strategic position in the Indian Ocean, along major sea
trade routes from the
Far East to
Africa and
Europe. Its capital is Sri Jayewardenapura-Kotte.
The country was a
British crown colony for more than a century, but gained independence
February 4,
1948 and is now a
Democratic Socialist Republic with a linguistically and religiously diverse population.
In 1972, the official
name of the
nation that
governs the
island was changed to "
Free,
Sovereign and
Independent Republic of Sri Lanka" (ශ්ර" ලංකා in
Sinhala and இலங்கை in
Tamil). In 1978 it was changed to "
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". Prior to 1972, Sri Lanka
was known by a variety of names; ancient Greek geographers called it
Taprobane, Arabs referred to it as
Serendib, but the best known is
Ceylon. "Sri Lanka" (originally
Sanskrit) is translated as "venerable Lanka", "śrī" meaning "venerable" and "laṃkā" being the ancient name of the island as attested in the
Mahabharata and the
Ramayana.
Prehistory
The earliest inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Veddas, an aboriginal people now numbering around 3,000 and living in remote mountain areas.
Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. Paleo-
anthropologists have shown that burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of
southern India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic
Ramayana. The main written accounts of the country's history are the
Buddhist chronicles of
Mahavansa and
Dipavamsa.
Ancient history
|
Landing of King Vijaya depicted in a painting |
According to legend, the history of the Sinhala people of the island begins with the arrival of an Indian prince named Vijaya and his followers. The story goes that when Vijaya arrived, there were people (referred to as
Yakshas in the scriptures) already living there. Vijaya took as his consort
Kuveni, the queen of these people, who gave birth to a son and daughter. This story is generally accepted to refer to the North Indian immigrants to a certain extent intermixing with the indigenous
Vedda population. Later, however, Vijaya is said to have married a
Pandyan princess from South India, from where he had more women brought as wives for his followers; this refers to early streams of immigrants from Southern India who peacefully integrated with the North Indian group. Vijaya's origins according to the
Mahavamsa lie in the North-East of India (the region of what is now
Orissa), while linguistic evidence in Sinhala clearly points to the North-West (the region of today's
Sindh or
Gujarat). Researchers believe that the term
Sinhala and the national identity of the Sinhalese as one people developed only at a later stage, after non-Aryan immigrants and indigenous people had been absorbed into the population.
Buddhism arrived from the Indian subcontinent in the
3rd century BC. The
Bhikkhu Mahinda, said to have been a son or brother of Buddhist Indian Emperor
Ashoka, was sent to Sri Lanka as a missionary; he is said to have converted the Sinhalese King Devanampiyatissa at
Mihintale. The Sinhalese population at large subsequently became Buddhists.
The country's written history is almost exclusively Sinhalese-Buddhist, but since the earliest times the presence of Tamil-speaking people in the island is mentioned in the chronicles. There is no clearly established date for the arrival of
Dravidian people on the island, which is thought to have occurred soon after that group reached
South India. While there is no mention of wars between the Sinhalese and Tamils of Sri Lanka, there are many reports of conflicts between the Sinhalese and South Indian kingdoms which invaded Sri Lanka on several occasions because of the prosperity of the country; parts of the island, especially areas close to India, were ruled at times by Dravidian dynasties such as the
Cholas,
Pandyas,
Cheras and
Pallavas. The island was also invaded and ruled by Kings of
Kalinga and
Malay Straits. Several times, South Indian kings were expelled from the island by Sinhalese rulers from the South; the most famous story is that of the victory of the Sinhalese prince
Dutugemunu over the Tamil king
Elara of Anuradhapura in 161 B.C.E. Over the centuries, several Sinhalese kingdoms with different capitals existed, often simultaneously. At least by the 13th century B.C.E., a Tamil
kingdom with the capital
Jaffna had been established in the North, but it did not last long.
From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of
Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tanks" or
reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate
aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile (1:60,000).
Colonial rule
In 1505 the
Portuguese arrived on the island, and colonial rule began. At that point the island consisted of three
autonomous kingdoms, namely Yarlpanam (Anglicised
Jaffna) in the north,
Kandy in the central hills and
Kotte at the Western coast. The
Dutch arrived in the 17th century. During Portuguese and Dutch rule of coastal areas, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in
Kandy.
Great Britain replaced the Dutch in 1796, and the coastal areas became a crown colony in 1802. After the fall of the Kandy kingdom in 1815, the British unified it with the 'low country' Kingdoms on the island for administrative purposes in 1818. A
struggle for independence started in the 1930s, when the
Youth Leagues opposed the 'Ministers' Memorandum' which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers, rather than moving toward independence.
Independence
After the crucial role played by Ceylon in
World War II, the pressure for independence intensified, and under the name of Ceylon [
1], it became a
Commonwealth realm in 1948. The first prime minister was
Don Stephen Senanayake. In
1972, the country became a
republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka.
Recent conflict
Main article: Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka
Since the early 1980s, there has been an ongoing
ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka between the Sri Lankan government and members of the Tamil ethnic group in the northeast of the island. A
ceasefire was declared in
2002, but violence has continued despite this.
The
President of the
Republic is directly elected for a six-year term and serves as
Head of State,
Head of Government and
Commander in Chief of the armed forces. The President is responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties in accordance with the
Constitution and laws. The incumbent may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament, with the agreement by the Supreme Court. The President appoints and heads a
Cabinet of Ministers responsible to Parliament. The President's deputy is the
Prime Minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament.
In post-independence Sri Lanka, a significant hallmark was the conflict between the socialist government headed by Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike and the "capitalist" mainstream press. This conflict culminated in the take-over ("broadbasing") of the country's largest newspaper group through the Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. (Special Provisions) Act 1973.
The Sri Lankan
Parliament is a
unicameral 225-member legislature. Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified
proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat" (
see Hickman, 1999). The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws. Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has remained a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations.
Parliament was dissolved on
February 7,
2004 by President
Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. Elections were held on
April 4 and the new Parliament convened on
April 23 and elected Mahinda Rajapaksa as the Prime Minister.
In August 2005, the Supreme Court ruled that Presidential Elections would be held in November 2005, resolving a long-running dispute on the length of President Kumaratunga's term.
Mahinda Rajapaksa was nominated the SLFP candidate even though the party leader and President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga did not support his campaign. The former Prime Minister
Ranil Wickremesinghe was nominated the UNP candidate and had the backing of minority parties.
The Election was held on
November 17,
2005, and
Mahinda Rajapaksa was elected the fifth Executive President of Sri Lanka with a 50.29% of valid votes, compared to Ranil Wickremesinghe's 48.43%.
Mahinda Rajapaksa took oath as President on
November 19,
2005.
Ratnasiri Wickremanayake was appointed the 22nd Prime Minister on
November 21,
2005, to fill the post vacated by
Mahinda Rajapaksa. He was previously Prime Minister in 2000. His narrow victory was largely due to the mass support from the Southern Sinhala-Buddhist voters. Also, in the North, the
LTTE boycotted the election, thereby preventing thousands of Tamils living in the areas under their control from voting, and so Wickremasinghe, whose election promises included a
Federal state to the North and East, from taking power.
Rajapaksa offers less autonomy than Wickremasinghe to the
northeast, home to most of Sri Lanka's 3.2 million ethnic
Tamils. However, since taking the office, Rajapaksa has offered to have peace talks with the LTTE on a permanent solution to the conflict.
Foreign relations of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka generally follows a non-aligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 1977. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the
United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the
Commonwealth, the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the
World Bank,
International Monetary Fund,
Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.
Military of Sri Lanka
|
Sri Lankan Army Airborne Commandos |
The
Sri Lankan Military comprises of
Sri Lankan Army,
Sri Lankan Navy and
Sri Lankan Air Force. They are under the control of the Ministry of Defence, which is currently controlled by President
Mahinda Rajapaksa who also acts as Minster of Defence. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces are primarily focused on land warfare, with the Army being the oldest and largest of all the services. However, as the nation is surrounded by sea, the Navy is considered the most vital defence force. The Air Force is seen primarily as a support force for both land and naval services. The military has taken part in many wars throughout its history including the
Boer Wars and both
World Wars (under the command of the British at the time). Since independence, however, its primary missions have been
counter-insurgency, targeting armed groups within the country, most notably the
LTTE and at one point the Sinhalese insurgent group the
JVP. The Sri Lankan military has apparently received training assistance from other nations such as
Australia, the
United Kingdom,
Israel,
United States,
India,
Pakistan and even
South Africa. There have even been claims that soldiers from some of those countries have taken part in operations, but this has not been substantiated or confirmed. Recently, the Sri Lankan Army was chosen by the
United Nations to take part in peacekeeping operations in
Haiti. A massive military upgradation plan of the armed forces is underway with
Pakistan with purchases like Super Mushaks, Al-Khalid tanks, F-6 multi role aircraft, APC Talha etc being discussed.
|
Map of Sri Lankan Districts coloured based on provinces |
Sri Lanka is divided into
nine provinces (which are further subdivided into
districts). Each province is administered by a directly elected
Provincial Council. In this eight-province scheme, the provinces are (capitals in parentheses):
- Central (Kandy)
- North Central (Anuradhapura)
- North Eastern (Trincomalee)
- North Western (Kurunegala)
- Southern (Galle)
- Uva (Badulla)
- Sabaragamuwa (Ratnapura)
- Western (Colombo)
The island of Sri Lanka lies in the
Indian Ocean, southwest of the
Bay of Bengal. It is separated from the
Indian subcontinent by the
Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Strait.
According to
Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as
Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of
Rama. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above
sea level. According to temple records, this natural
causeway was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm (probably a
cyclone) in 1480.
The
pear-shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these are
Sri Pada and the highest point
Pidurutalagala (also known as Mt Pedro), at 2,524
meters (8,281
ft). The
Mahaweli ganga (Mahaweli river) and other major rivers provide fresh water.
At its maximum, Sri Lanka is 435KM / 235 miles long (North to South) and 225KM / 140 miles wide (East to West).
The
climate is tropical, characterized by
monsoons: the northeast monsoon lasts from December to March, the southwest June to October. The lowest
gravitational field on Earth lies just off the coast of Sri Lanka.
*
Sri Lanka Map Sri Lanka is one of the world's
bio-diversity hot-spots. Its
forests are among the most
floristically rich in Asia and for some
faunal groups, it has the world's highest density of species diversity. The southwest, where the influence of the moisture-bearing southwest monsoon is strongest, is home to the
Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. At higher
elevations they transfer to the
Sri Lanka mountain rain forests. Both these
tropical moist forest ecoregions are very similar to those of India's
Western Ghats.
The north and east are considerably drier, lying in the
rain shadow of the central highlands. The
Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests are a
tropical dry broadleaf forest ecoregion, which, like the neighbouring
East Deccan dry evergreen forests of India's
Coromandel Coast, is characterized by
evergreen trees, rather than the dry-season
deciduous trees that predominate in most other tropical dry broadleaf forests.
These forests have been largely cleared for agriculture, timber or grazing, and many of the dry evergreen forests have been degraded to thorn scrub,
savannah, or thickets. Several preserves have been established to protect some of Sri Lanka's remaining natural areas. The island has three
biosphere reserves,
Hurulu (established 1977),
Sinharaja (established 1978), and
Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) (established 2004).
Sri Lanka is a centre of
bird endemism. See
Endemic Birds of the Indian Subcontinent for more information.
*
Sri Lanka Birds*
Sri Lanka Nature*
National Parks *
Water FallsSri Lanka is historically famous for the production of
cinnamon and
tea (introduced by the British in the 19th century). From independence until 1977, it had a strongly
socialist economy, but since then it has been increasingly pursuing
privatization, market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. While tea and
rubber are still important, the most dynamic sectors are now food processing,
textiles and apparel, food and beverages,
telecommunications,
insurance, and
banking. By 1996, plantation crops made up only 20% of exports (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%.
The
GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first economic contraction in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and
continuing civil strife. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Colombo stock exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest
per capita income in South Asia.
In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the
United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of
Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the left-nationalist
Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the
United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of
state enterprises and reforms of state
utilities such as power and
petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the
World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund.
But this policy of subsidizing imported commodities like fuel,
fertilizer and
wheat soon unravelled the fiscal sector. In 2004 alone Sri Lanka spent approximately
US$ 180 million on a fuel subsidy, as fixing fuel prices had been an election promise.
To finance the expanded
budget deficit arising from a range of subsidies and a public sector recruitment drive, the government eventually had to print
Rs 65 billion (US$ 650 million) or around 3% of GDP. The expansionary fiscal policy, coupled with loose
monetary policy eventually drove
inflation up to 18% by January 2005, as measured by the Sri Lanka
Consumer Price Index.
Tsunami December 2004
By December 2004, the country was heading for a
balance of payments crisis, as the currency depreciated and reserves dwindled. The tsunami in that month brought aid flows, and support from the IMF helped improve sentiment in the foreign exchange market. But GDP growth, which had climbed to 6.4% by the first quarter of 2004, had fallen to 4.8% by the first quarter of 2005. The tsunami helped stabilize the deterioration of macro-economic fundamentals as foreign debt relief and assistance from the International Monetary Fund strengthened both the external sector and fiscal operations.
A September 2005 IMF report called for an end to 'fiscal domination' of monetary policy and more independence for the Central Bank so that inflation could be contained.In December 2005, Sri Lanka received its first international credit rating with
Fitch Ratings assigning it a BB- (a rating held by Brazil and Indonesia among others).
Sri Lanka's population is highly educated with a literacy rate of 96%, higher than that typical of a
third world country and one of the highest rates in
South Asia. This can mainly be attributed to the
free education system.
Sri Lanka has the world's 53rd largest population. The Sri Lankan population has not been growing as quickly as many other
Asian countries but has kept a steady pace for the last 20 years. The precise population is unclear (between 16 and 20 million) because many people have been displaced as a result of the ethnic conflict and the tsunami. The population growth rate is 0.79% compared to 1.4% in
India and 2.03% in
Pakistan. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 birth per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is greatest in the western part of the country, particularly around the largest city,
Colombo.
Ethnic identities in Sri Lanka generally do not represent the
genetic heritage.
Assimilation and intermixing has produced a group of people who are only marginally different from each other irrespective of ethnic boundaries. About 74% of Sri Lankans are
Sinhalese.
Sri Lankan Tamils constitute 18%, and though scattered evenly throughout the country, form a large proportion in the north, east and central provinces. Tamils comprise two communities: Native Tamils and immigrants from
India (who arrived during the late colonial period) called "Indian Origin" (or "estate") Tamils. There is a large population of Moors (
Muslims of Arab descent), living in all parts of the island, but forming a large percentage of the population living in the Eastern Province. There are smaller ethnic groups such as the
Burghers (of mixed European descent) and
Malay people. There is also a small population of the indigenous inhabitants of the island called
Wanniyala-Aetto or
Veddahs.
Both
Sinhala and
Tamil are official languages.
English, the link language in the present constitution, is spoken competently by about 10% of the population, and is widely understood. All three languages are used in education, business and administration.
Religions of Sri Lanka
|
Nallur Kandaswamy Temple, Jaffna |
Religion in Sri Lanka is as much varied as its ethnic groups. 68% are
Buddhist, and the other religions are
Hinduism (18%),
Christianity (7%), and
Islam (6%).
The ancient and famous
Sri Dalada Maligawa or "Temple of the Tooth" is the principal
Buddhist Temple in Sri Lanka, and by tradition houses the Tooth of
Buddha. It is visited every year by millions of pilgrims. There are many other famous religious institutions in Sri Lanka that attract many visitors daily.
The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anaradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna, where the public library that was destroyed in 1983 was the world centre of Tamil archives and scholarship). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But economic growth and intense economic competition in developed countries has spilled over even to much of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernization, or a loss of identity and assimilation.
|
Hoppers, a delicacy in Sri Lanka |
You can now find the presence of
American taste represented by
McDonalds,
Kentucky Fried Chicken, and others. Sri Lankans have not stopped practicing their culture and traditions, but they have added western options to the customary diet such as
Rice and Curry, Pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this un sweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "Lunumiris"), Wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including
Cinnamon cloves and
Nutmeg -- and most of all
hoppers ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Sri Lankan food also has Dutch and Portuguese influences, with the island's
Burgher People community preserving this culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).
Being one of the largest producers of
tea in the world (the
Royal Family of the
United Kingdom has been known to drink
Ceylon tea),
Sri Lankans drink a lot of tea. Many Sri Lankans drink at least two cups a day.
|
Sri Lanka playing Australia in One Day Cricket |
Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The
Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the
Lunar calendar. The
Hindus and
Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many
Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many
mosques,
Hindu temples and
churches all across the island. The North and the East of the island have many mosques and Hindu temples because a large
Tamil and
Muslim population resides in those areas. Many churches can be found along the southern coast line because of a concentration of Christians, particularly
Roman Catholics, in that region. The interior of the island is mostly Buddhist, and indeed there are many Buddhists in all parts of the island.
Sri Lanka's main sport is
cricket. Every child knows how to play cricket and there are many cricket fields scattered across the island for children and adults to play the sport. The biggest pastime of the Sri Lankan population other than playing cricket is watching the Sri Lankan National Team playing cricket. Most of the time, businesses shut down when there is a big match on television. This was the case in 1996 when the Sri Lanka team reached (and won) the
Cricket World Cup finals against Australia. The whole country shut down as if there was a curfew imposed.
* First country in the world to have established a dedicated
hospital (
Mihintale, 4th century BC)
* The world's first recorded wildlife sanctuary was at Mihintale. It was established by King Devanampiyatissa in the 3rd century BC.
* Oldest country in the
World within its present borders (the island of Sri Lanka existed as a independent sovereign country as far back as the 4th century BC)
* First female
monarch in an Asian country, Queen Anula (
47"
42 BC)
* First country in the
World to have a female
prime minister (
Sirimavo Bandaranaike,
July 21,
1960)
* Longest period of continuous multi-party democracy by a non-western country (1931"present)
* World's leading exporter of
tea;
Ceylon tea is famed to be one of the best teas in the world.
* World's leading exporter of
cinnamon; exported to
Egypt as early as 1400 BC
* First country in
South Asia to start radio
broadcasting with
Radio Ceylon " celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting on
December 16,
2005* First country in Asia to fly the Airbus
A340* The
Nil Manel, (
Nympheae Stelleta), has been the national flower of Sri Lanka from 1986. The national tree of Sri Lanka is
Na (
Mesua ferrea)
* Seven properties of Sri Lanka have been inscribed in the
UNESCO World Heritage List, namely, the ancient city of
Polonnaruwa (1982), the ancient city of
Sigiriya (1982), the golden Temple of
Dambulla (1991), the old town of Galle and its
fortifications (1988), the sacred city of
Anuradhapura (1982), the sacred city of
Kandy (1988) and the
Sinharaja forest reserve (1988)
* The world's oldest documented tree, and first generation of the tree under which the Buddha gained enlightenment - the
Sri Maha Bodhi - still grows in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
* The
Buddhist scriptures were first committed to writing at Aluvihare in Sri Lanka.
* The
chronology of early
India depends upon that of the
Mahawansa, the Sri Lankan Historical Record.
* Winner of the
1996 Cricket World Cup* Sri Lanka is recognised with the popular slogan
The Pearl of the Indian Ocean* Several names have been used in ancient times to describe Sri Lanka. In
Ptolemy's map (127"151
AD) Sri Lanka was depicted as
Taprobana. One of the seamen of
Alexander the Great used the name
Sinhala Dvipa. The name
Serendib was used by the Arab navigators in the
6th and
7th centuries. This was further contracted to
Ceilão by the Portuguese,
Ceylan by the Dutch and
Ceylon by the British.
*Gunaratne, S.A.: "The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka", Journalism Monographs 39 (May 1975)
*Mendis, G.C.:
Ceylon Today and Yesterday, Colombo 1957 (3rd edition 1995)
*de Silva, Chandra Richard:
Sri Lanka - A History, New Delhi 1987 (2nd, revised ed. 1997)
*Smith, Vincent A.:
The Oxford History of India, Oxford 1958 (4th edition 1981)
*Robert Knox.:
An Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon in the East Indies, New Delhi 2004 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services)
*Williams, H.:
Ceylon : Pearl of the East Delhi, Surjeet, 2002
*Devendra, T. and Gunasena, D.:
Sri Lanka : The Emerald Island, (New Delhi 1996), Roli Books.
*Codrington, H.W.:
A Short History of Ceylon, New Delhi 1994 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services)
*Nissanka, H.S.S.:
Maha Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka : The Oldest Historical Tree in the World New Delhi 1996 (Reprint. Vikas)
*R. A. E. Coningham.:
Monks, Caves and Kings: A Reassessment of the Nature of Early Buddhism in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). World Archaeology 27: 222-242, 1995.
*Elie L. Menasche,
Ceylon : Island of Gems. Reprint. New Delhi, Asian Educational Services, 2004
*K. M. De Silva.:
A History of Sri Lanka. New Delhi, Penguin, xvii, p. 782, 2005.
* James Brow.:
Vedda villages of anuradhapura: The historical anthropology Of a community in Sri Lanka, University Of Washington Press, Seattle, 1978.
* Manfred Domroes.:
After the Tsunami: Relief and rehabilitation in Sri Lanka, New Delhi, Mosaic Books, 1st ed. 2006.
*Manel Ratnatunga.:
Tales from Sri Lanka: Folk and history New Delhi, Sterling Publishers, 1st ed. 2006
*Harry Williams.:
Ceylon Pearl of the East, Robert Hale Limited, London, Great Britain, 1950.
* B. L. C. Johnson and M. Le M. Scrivenor.:
Sri Lanka Land, People and Economy, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, London, 1981.
Government
*Official web portal of the Government of Sri Lanka
*The official Web site of The Government of Sri lanka
*Ministry of Defence of Sri Lanka
*Office of the President of Sri Lanka
*Ministry of Finance and Planning, Sri Lanka
*Central Bank of Sri Lanka
*Colombo Stock Exchange
*The National Air Carrier - Sri Lankan Airlines
*Sri Lanka Tea Board
*Sri Lanka Ports Authority - Port of Colombo
; Tourism
*The Official Website of Sri Lanka Tourist Board
*Ministry of Tourism Sri Lanka
*Sri Lanka Travel Guide and Country Reference
*Lonely Planet Destination - Sri Lanka
; Business
*Sri Lanka Business Web
*Sri Lanka Export Development Board
*Board of Investment of Sri Lanka
*Sri Lanka embraces outsourcing - BBC News
; Other
*WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ce.html The CIA World Factbook - Sri Lanka]
*Commonwealth Secretariat Country Profile
*Encyclopaedia Britannica - Sri Lanka Country Page''
*Sri Lanka - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
*Global Heritage Fund
*The Mary B. Wheeler Collection of Slides, University of Pennsylvania Library
*Lakdiva - The Pearl of the Indian Ocean
