Sufism
Sufism ( - - - ) or
Irfan (
Arabic/
Persian: عرفان) is a
mystic tradition of
Islam. Sufism encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practises.
Tariqas (Sufi orders) may be associated with
Shi'a Islam,
Sunni Islam, other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Sufi thought emerged from the
Middle East in the eighth century, but adherents are now found around the world.
Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in
Arabic,
Turkish,
Persian,
Kurdish,
Urdu,
Punjabi,
Sindhi, which notably includes the works of
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi,
Abdul Qader Bedil,
Bulleh Shah,
Amir Khusro,
Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai,
Sachal Sarmast,
Sultan Bahu, as well as numerous traditions of devotional dance, such as
Sufi whirling, and music, such as
Qawwali.
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Rumi (1207-1273 CE) sufi and poet |
A few etymologies for the word
Sufi have been suggested.
The conventional view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. However, not all sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool. Another etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning purity. This places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
Others suggest the origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
The history of Sufism can be divided into the following principal periods:
Origins
Sufism originates in the teachings of the Prophet
Muhammad. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (orders) trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet, either via his cousin and son-in-law Imam
Ali ibn Abi Talib or caliph
Abu Bakr. From their point of view, the esoteric teaching was given to those who had the capacity to contain the direct experiential gnosis of God, and then passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.
Some scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example,
Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. And
Louis Massignon states: "It is from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."
The Great masters of Sufism
The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an
apprentice (murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a
Master (shaykh or pir).
|
The Bastami Complex in Bastam, Semnan Province of Iran, contains the shrine of Mohammad ibn Jafar Sadiq, the tomb of Bayazid, his monastery, the Iwan of Öljeitü, the tomb of Mahmud Ghazan, the Congregation Mosque, the tower of Kashaneh, and the Shahrukhiya seminary, bath, and Zurkhaneh, dating from before the Seljuki era, at the earliest. |
Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages
(maqaam) and states
(haal). The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life.
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian,
Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics among the "Taabi'een" in Islam.
Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.
Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘
fanaa' and ‘
baqaa', the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning wordly phenomena.
Formalization of Philosophies of Sufism
Al Ghazali's treatises, the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an making it compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was around 1000
CE that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.
Propagation of Sufism
Sufism, during 1200-1500 CE, experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and
hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students, but also places for practising Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat.
The propagation of Sufism started from its origin in Baghdad, Iraq, and spread to
Persia,
India,
North Africa and
Muslim Spain. There were tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.), as well as the beginning of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).
One of the first orders to originate was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah
Ahmed Yesevi in modern
Kazakhstan. The
Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named after
Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became shaykhs. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is
Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the
Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included
Rumi, founder of the
Mevlevi order in Turkey,
Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and
Moinuddin Chishti in India.
Modern Sufism
This period includes the effects of modern thoughts, science, and philosophy on Sufism and the advent of Sufism to the
West. Important Sufis of this period include
Hazrat Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha,
Hazrat Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha,
Hazrat Mir Ghotbeddin Mohammad Angha and
Hazrat Jalaleddin Ali Mir Abolfazl Angha from the
Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi order.
A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of
mysticism and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam, an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam, and the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mysticisms such as
Gnosticism and
Hinduism into Islam [
1]. The evidence in support of non-Islamic influences in formation of Sufism includes the existence of similarities between Sufism and mystic systems outside Islam. There are also claims regarding
ancient Egyptian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted.[
2]. Others oppose the idea of extensive non-Islamic influences on Sufism and believe that these theories are based on misunderstanding Islam as a harsh and sterile religion, incapable of developing mysticism.
Dervishes—the name given to initiates of Sufi orders—believe that love is a projection of the essence of
God to the
universe. They believe God desires to recognize beauty by looking at himself within the dynamics of nature. Divine love is not restricted to what the term "love of God" implies, it also includes human loves with a perspective that views everything a manifestation of God.
The central doctrine of Sufism, sometimes called
Wahdat or Unity, is the understanding of
Tawhid: all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality, or
Wujud (being), or 'al-Haq
(Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of duality, therefore the individual self also), and realize the divine unity.
Sufis teach in personal groups, believing the interaction of the master is necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself. Although philosophies vary between different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to various forms of mysticism such as Zen Buddhism and Gnosticism.
The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar, helps describe this line of thought.
There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God.
A significant part of Persian literature comes from the Sufis, who created great books of poetry (which include for example the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi''), all of which contain teachings of the Sufis.
Lataif-e-sitta (The Six Subtleties)
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish
Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties),
Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa. These lataif (singular : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, faculties of sensory perception.
Sufic development involves the awakening of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in an individual. Each center is associated with a particular colour and general area of the body, oft times with a particular prophet, and varies from Order to Order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion."
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata of
kabbalah, but the resemblance to the
tantric chakra system is misleading, since the Sufi psychology does not operate with anything equivalent to the esoteric energy physiology of
Kundalini.
Man gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by
Muraqaba (Sufi Meditation),
Dhikr (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche from negative thoughts, emotions, and actions. Loving God and one's fellow, irrespective of his race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
Sufi cosmology
Although there is no consensus with regard to
Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle various threads that led to the crystallization of more or less coherent cosmological doctrines. Reading various authoritative texts, one can see that practitioners of Sufism were not much bothered with inconsistencies and contradictions that have arisen due to juxtaposition and superposition of at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by
Suhrawardi Maqtul,
Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like
Ibn Sina/Avicenna and Sufis like
Ibn al-Arabi, and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results – a situation one encounters in other esoteric doctrines, from Hebrew
Kabbalah and
Gnosticism to
Vajrayana Buddhism and Trika
Shaivism. The following cosmological plan is usually found in various Sufi texts:
See also:
Plane (cosmology) Esoteric cosmology.
Muraqaba
Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of
meditation. The
Arabic word literally means observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires. In some Sufi orders, muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the
names of God, on a verse of the
Qur'an, or on certain
Arabic letters that have special significance. Muraqaba in other orders may involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his or her
murshid, while others (such as the
Azeemia order) imagine certain colors to achieve different spiritual states.
Dhikr
Dhikr (Zekr) is the remembrance of God commanded in the
Qur'an for all
Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
The
Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for group dhikr, the
liturgy of which may include
recitation,
singing,
instrumental music,
dance,
costumes,
incense,
meditation,
ecstasy, and
trance. (Touma 1996, p.162). Dhikr in a group is most often done on Thursday and/or Sunday nights as part of the institutional practice of the orders.
Hadhra
Hadhra is a dance associated with
dhikr practiced primarily in the
Arab world.
Qawwali
Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in
Pakistan and North
India. As a tradition, Qawwali is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the
Sabri Brothers.
Sama
Sama or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to
Sufi worship practices involving music and dance (see
Sufi whirling). In
Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See
Qawwali origins and
Origin and History of the Qawwali,
Adam Nayyar,
Lok Virsa Research Centre,
Islamabad, 1988.
Khalwa
Khalwa refers to a form of
retreat, once widespread but now less common.
Traditional orders
The traditional Sufi orders emphasize the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore the
Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the
Oveyssi,
Shadhili,
Jerrahi,
Qadiri,
Naqshbandi,
Nimatullahi,
Mevlevi,
Chishti and the
Ashrafi. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia.
For a longer list of Sufi orders see:
Sufi ordersNon-traditional Sufi groups
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are
Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.
Universal Sufism
Mainstream Sufism is seen by its scholars and supporters as a part of traditional Islam. However, there is a major line of non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being a
universal philosophy, that is independent of the
Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet
Muhammad. This view of Sufism has been popular in the
Western world, and the terms yogi and sufi are used interchangeably. Universal Sufism tends to be opposed by traditional Sufis, who argue that Sufism has always been practiced from within an Islamic framework and can never be separated from it.
Inayat Khan founded
Universal Sufism, and
Idries Shah advocated similar concepts.
There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and His creation.
Islam traditionally consists of a number of groups. The two main divisions are the
Sunnis and the
Shia. Sunni Islam consists of a number of schools of legal jurisprudence (called
Madhabs). Sufis do not define Sufism as a madhhab " what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually through association with a Sufi order. Belief in Sufism is not sufficient for being recognized as a Sufi. Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of
Fiqh and one of the two orthodox schools of
Aqida. In this sense, traditional practicers of Sufism don't see it as an exclusive group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and
Ihsan in their lives.
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as SufisThe relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their history.
According to the followers of Sufism, the founders and early scholars of the schools (madhhabs) had positive attitudes towards Sufism, for example
Imam Ibn Hambal used to visit the Sufi master
Bishr al Hafi frequently [
3]. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism rank
heresy as well as those like
Al-Ghazali who defended Sufis as true Muslims. In time, even the controversial words of
Al-Hallaj came to be accepted by some scholars.
Today, many Islamic scholars (though not all) hold Tasawwuf, in the sense of Sufi doctrines and philosophies, to be the science of the heart or gnosis (as distinct from other branches of Islamic knowledge which are
exoteric in nature) and appreciate Sufis for their extensive contributions to Islamic arts and philosophy. Many Muslims who are not themselves Sufis are influenced by Sufi teachings.
Sufism is a somewhat controversial subject today. For didactic convenience, the perspectives on Sufism as a part of Islam will be mentioned first and after that, the non Muslim groups who claim to be Sufi adherents.
Islamic positions on Sufism
Classic position on Sufism
Sufism was traditionally considered the systematisation of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as
Fiqh dealt with the body and
Aqida dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg.
Al-Ghazali's ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam
Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg.
Al-Azhar) like
Ibn Ata'illah were
Sufi masters. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam
. Many of the famous Islamic scholars have praised Sufis and their practices. For a list, please refer
scholars on sufism.
However, Sufism emphasises non quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which couldn't be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the
Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was
Abu Hilman. One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was
Ibn Taymiya.
For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer
Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam.
Criticism of Sufism
Sufism has been criticised as being
non Islamic in nature. The adherents of the
Salafi school form the majority of Muslims opposed to Tasawwuf. They hold that Sufism was always held to be an innovation even by the earliest scholars ([
4],[
5]). Some of their main criticisms are listed below. # Sufi masters have introduced many special prayers and devotional acts into their schools. These are criticised as being
reprehensible innovations which are at best unnecessary. The supporters of Sufism defend their position by saying that innovations can be classified into good and bad ones. They hold that the textually transmitted prayers and invocations are superior in all respects to the ones they institute and that the latter only plays a reinforcing role rather than a main one ([
6],[
7]). # Some point to certain practices like singing being inconsistent with the Sharia. Sufis defend their position by quoting prophetic traditions that condone certain forms of non instrumental music (refer links above). # The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to pantheism and therefore incompatible with Islam([
8]). Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature. [
9].
Islamic positions on non Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title Sufi by many groups to refer to themselves and their use of traditional Sufi masters (notably
Jalaluddin Rumi) as sources of inspiration as well as the existence of interpretations of classical Sufis texts by people who have no grounding in traditional Islamic sciences has created a group of non-Islamic Sufis. These are considered by traditional Islamic scholars as beyond the pale of the religion.[
10], [
11]
*
Haqiqa*
Khanqah*
List of famous Sufis*
List of Sufism related topics*
Nazar ill'al-murd*
Nur al-Jerrahi*
Ziyarat*
Keramat*
Wahdat al wujud عقيده وحدت الوجود* [
12][
13][
14] Excrepts/Books by
Abdul Qadir Jilani* [
15][
16] Excrepts/Books by
Ibn ArabiTariqa websites and general links
*
Sufi Meditation - Sufi Meditation
*
Sufism, Rumi *
Osmanli Naks'i-Bendi Hakkani Sufi Order - Sufi Dergah in New York
*
Maizbhandar Sharif*
Maktab Tarighat Oveyssi Shahmaghsoudi (School of Islamic Sufism)*
Official Nimatullahi website*
Sufi Saints and Sufism in India*
Articles on Sufism*
Collection of Sufi Poetry*
A Sufi response to Islamism*
"Sufism": A Tradition of Transcendental Mysticism*
A modern sufi shaikh, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, (RAL)Criticism
*
From dhikr to kufr the Sufi way*
What Islamic Scholars have said about Sufism*
The Naqshbandi Tariqat Unveiled*
SUFISM: ITS ORIGINS*
Shocking Images of Graves and Tombs from Bangalore, India*
The Difference Between the Creator and the Creation and the Concept of Fana*
The Truth about Sufism*
Path of Misguidance
