The Christianised calendar
The term
Christianised calendar refers to feast days which are
Christianised survivals from pre-Christian times. Several Christian feasts occupy moments in the year that were formerly devoted to pagan celebrations. Familiar examples are the Roman
Saturnalia, converted to
Christmas, the festivities of
Yule in northern Europe, the name of
Eostre converted to English "
Easter" to identify the Paschal festival, the celebration of
Midsummer Day as the birthday feast of
John the Baptist, and the celebrations of the
Feast of the Lemures and of Celtic
Samhain combined and transferred to the eve of
All Saints' Day a.k.a.
Halloween.
Christians in authority frowned upon the riot and disorder of the pre-Christian festivals; in regard to Yule,.the friend and biographer of
Saint Eligius recorded that the bishop called the "Apostle to the Frisians" would caution his flock "[Do not] make vetulas, (little figures of the Old Woman), little deer or iotticos or set tables at night (for the house-elf, compare
Puck) or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks''. However, such pre-Christian activities proved hard to suppress, and several edicts were given that instruct missionaries to attempt to absorb earlier traditions into Christianity so as to distract people from their pre-Christian gods; All Souls' Day was for example accepted by
Odilo (died 1048) in the
Cluniac monasteries, and its observance spread through the Celtic north before it was introduced into Italy.
The
Cross-quarter days, i.e. the days falling exactly half way between a
solstice and an
equinox, are universally acknowledged as having had great significance to pre-Christian groups, particularly the celts. They are also days on which Christian festivals occur, that were in mediaeval times quite significant, but have become progressively less so in modern times, particularly among Protestant groups.
Lammas (
loaf-mass), the first-harvest festival, derives from
Lughnasadh, the pre-Christian celtic first-harvest festival, and is still celebrated in
Ireland and
Europe with fires, and with dancing. The now non-religious
highland games, held around the time of Lammas, may also be survivals from Lughnasadh (a multi-day festival lasting until 15th August), whose celebrations also included contests of strength, in order of
Lugus, the deity after whom the festival was named.
Walpurgis Night, which in Christian tradition is dedicated to
Saint Walburga, was previously
Beltane, the celtic spring festival, when people would ritually purify themselves by walking between lighted fires. Though the pre-Christian tradition survived and was and is celebrated by people lighting large fires, the church evidently disapproved, as it was characterised as something
witches did. Technically there is very little connection between the activities of the night, or even the date, and Saint Walburga, and it is only in due to her corpse once having been moved between locations on this date that she has the association..
Candlemas, supposedly celebrating the
ritual purification of
Mary, the mother of Jesus, has long been considered a day on which future prosperity, or not, can be prophesied - indeed among American Protestants the association with Mary has been reduced to such a level that the day is mostly known for the prophecy ritual, and is known there as
Groundhog Day.
Imbolc, the celtic festival that had been held at the same time of year, was the festival of the onset of lactation in ewes, due to give birth to spring lambs, and was consequently seen as a time when animals had the ability to indicate future prosperity; it was also a celebrated by lighting lamps candles, representing the lengthening of the day which becomes noticeable around the time of Imbolc. Conversely, Lupercalia, the Roman festival at the time, was concerned with the ritual purification of women. Many historians, despite protests to the contrary by Catholic apologists, have argued that Candlemas originated as a heavily sanitised Christianisation of lupercalia, into which certain traditions of Imbolc, such as the significant presence of candles, and prophetic elements, merged when Christianity spread into northern and western Europe.
In most Christian groups, and particularly in Catholic and Orthodox groups, there is an annual commemoration of the dead at around the same date, known by various titles such as
All Souls Day, the
Day of the Dead, and
All Saints; in western europe and north america many of the traditions are identified under the name of
Halloween, and have become somewhat detached from the commemoration aspect. In pre-Christian times, this cross quarter day was celebrated as
Samhain, in Celtic countries, and
Dziady in Slavic countries. In many early cultures, including not only celtic cultures, but also hebrew, the standard reckoning of time considered a day to start with darkness and gradually become lighter; dusk was the start of a day, not an indication that it approached its end. Similarly the year was considered, in Celtic countries, to begin in winter, at Samhain, and it was thought that the start of the year was a time when the world of the dead met that of the living; rather than a sinister event, this was considered a time when a feast should be laid on for the temporary visit from the souls of the dead. In Catholic traditions, the night is one when when the graves of dead relatives are visited, with candles being lit, under a
picnic like atmosphere, and oblations are made (especially in southern europe); many historians argue that this is clearly derived from the pre-Christian events. The Christian festival was originally held annually on the week after
Pentecost, and is still held at about this date by the Eastern Orthodox church, but in western europe, churches began to hold it at the same time as pre-Christian festivals commemorating the dead, and was eventually moved officially, by
Pope Gregory III. The pre-Christian Romans also had a festival concerning the dead at the same time, known as the the
Feast of the Lemures, which cultural historians have identified as the source for
All Saints Day, and which the ancient Romans identified as being the same as Samhain, despite the large difference of date.
St. Lucia Day, which was originally held on the darkest night of the year (the
winter solstice), is a significant celebration in
Scandinavian countries, and in the
balkans, and heavily involves candlelight. The day is dedicated to
Saint Lucy, who Christian tradition regards as someone who plucked out her eyes, yet was still able to see. Historians see her as a fiction, derived from pre-Christian folk tales of scandinavian night demons called
the Lussi, her story coming from the association with darkness combined with folk etymologies of her name as deriving from
lux, the latin word for light.
Saint Valentine's Day, traditionally linked to romance, is attributed by Christianity to a
Valentine. However, no early documents connect Valentine, whoever he may be, with love, and such legends only appear in the mediaeval era, while the pre-Christian festival of
Lupercalia, held on the same day was strongly connected to romance, as it was a major Roman fertility festival.
Pope Gelasius I both banned Lupercalia, and instituted the feast day of Saint Valentine, and many scholars think that the romantic significance of Lupercalia is the source of the Romantic significance of Valentine's day.
The
Day of the Nativity of John the Baptist, also known as
Saint Jonas' Festival,
Jāņi, and
Saint John's Eve, is Christian mostly in name only, and is really survival of the celebration of the
summer solstice; the various local traditions on the day involving herbs and fire being very difficult to explain in Christian terms. In many European countries the midsummer festival has high significance, and in the Roman Catholic church, the date is the single most significant
feast day of the year, excepting those connected directly to Jesus; several historians have argued that the Roman Catholic stance derives from a sort of
Arms Race - emphasising the importance of the day in Christianity to draw people away from the highly popular non-Christian practices that happened during it.
Though having obvious Christian importance, and clear Christian rituals and practices, major Christian festivals such as
Christmas and
Easter have several elements associated with them that do not have such clear Christian connections, and are often interpreted as more secular aspects of the events. The festivals themselves occur at the same time of year as several pre-Christian festivals, in some cases a connection is openly acknowledged by Christian organisations, and at other times it is only critical historians that argue that such connections exist.
Christmas
Christmas is, according to Christian tradition, a celebration of the birth of
Jesus, and this is often the reason that many modern Christians celebrate the day. However, most scholars dating
the birth of Jesus think that he was born in late spring or early autumn, and argue that the celebration is a survival of
Saturnalia, the most popular festival in the Roman year. Saturnalia, originally a celebration in memory of the dedication of a temple to
Saturn, had become by the 3rd century dedicated to the increasingly popular
Mithras, under the title
Sol Invictus (
unconquerable sun), since the
winter solstice fell during its week long festivities. The
Roman Calendar was somewhat erratic in relation to the seasons, and the exact date of the solstice consequently drifted; after this was corrected under the
Julian calendar, and once the festival became associated with
Sol Invictus, Saturnalia was formally moved to December 25th, by
Aurelian in 274, as this was the date of the solstice that year. Fundamentalist Protestant groups have often regarded Christmas with suspicion, and when the
puritans gained control of Britain, in 1647, Christmas, and all the festivities associated with it, was prohibited by law. Saturnalia had been a week long festival, and a time when a feast would be held, gifts given, and
slaves were allowed to mistreat their masters; though the feast and gifts continue as Christmas traditions, the
Feast of Fools, a popular mediaeval event, has mostly died out since. Early Christian and non-Christian accounts portray Mithras and Jesus as similar figures
[So much so that Christians attacked Mithraism as a pre-cognitive mockery of Christianity - c.f. Eusebius], and the transformation of Saturnalia into Christmas has been cited as evidence for their position by those who believe that
Jesus is a syncretism in the
Osiris-Dionysus mould.
Several Christmas traditions, particularly in Northern Europe and North America, have several facets with a similarity to
Yule, the pre-Christian
winter solstice festival, whose name has often been used as a
synonym for
Christmas. The traditional consumption of
ham, and/or
sausages, at Christmas, historically known as
Christmas ham, is widely thought by historians to derive from the sacrifice of a
pig to the god
Freyr, that occurred during pre-Christian Yule. The burning of a
Yule log is derived from the celtic of cutting a tree, dousing it with wine and grain, as offerings, and burning it for the duration of Yule, believing that it would protect the house from evil for as long as it burnt. Kissing under
Mistletoe is thought to derive from a celtic tale in which
Frigga (after whom
Friday is named), goddess of love, extracted the poison of Mistletoe from her son, and when he recovered, she was so grateful that she kissed anyone passing under the Mistletoe. Covering buildings in
holly, and creating holly
wreaths, is thought to derive from pre-Christian beliefs that holly would protect the house from evil, and also be a gesture of hospitability to small woodland spirits who could use it for their protection; the sharp edges of holly allow small animals to hide inside the bush and be protected from predators.
In the english speaking world the
Christmas tree was popularised by
Prince Albert, having brought the tradition over from germany, from where it had also spread to other nations. The earliest written references to decorated trees as having an importance at Christmas come from 16th century germany, and these suggest the tradition had already been established for some time; it thus somewhat uncertain from where the tradition evolved. Although some conservative Christian groups have recently argued that the tree is an important Christian tradition that should not be secularised, others feel that it is an obviously pre-Christian tradition and should not be used, some even arguing that it is explicitly prohibited by a passage from the
Book of Jeremiah. It is known that in celtic belief, the evergreen held a particular value as symbolising the continuation of life during the dark times of winter, and that bringing a tree indoors was considered to be offering hospitality to its
sprite. Complicating the picture is the fact that
Dionysus, the central figure of one of the Osiris-Dionysus group of
mystery religions, appears to have been associated with a conifer of similar appearance to a Christmas tree, at least in what is now
Tunisia.
According to Christian tradition, the gift giving
Santa Claus is based on
Saint Nicholas, whom legend states rescued the daughters of a poor man, from the prospect of a career of prostitution, by secretly throwing purses filled with gold to the family. Historically, Nicholas was a prominent, and somewhat violent, anti-
Arian church father at the
First Council of Nicea, and an advocate of the destruction of non-Christian places of worship; forensic examination of his supposed remains suggests that he had been involved in fights, including the fact that he had a broken nose. Many historians argue that the discrepancy between the historic individual and legends attributed to him are due to the legends originally having been applied to someone else.
Woden (after whom
Wednesday is named) is considered the most likely ultimate origin of Santa Claus by most historians, since Woden was said to lead the
Wild Hunt, riding his horse through the sky, at Yule (the traditions of mainland europe have Santa riding a horse), and is based in northern europe, in areas where reindeer pulled sledges were normal modes of transport. Food for Woden's horse was left out by people as an offering, and in return Woden was said to provide gifts, and although Santa is said to leave gifts for other reasons, food for him or for his animals is left out all the same. Woden was portrayed as an old man with a beard, as is Santa, and it is possible that the historical Nicholas became associated with the traditions of Woden due to the fact that Nicholas is one of the very few early Christians to be known to have managed to live into old age. In many traditions, particularly those of
Germanic countries, Santa is said to have
certain sinister companions, with black clothes and faces, which are now thought to be derived from
Woden's ravens.
|
The Ghost of Christmas Present by John Leech, a stereotypical image of Father Christmas prior to merging with Santa Claus |
Though now identified as Santa Claus, before the 20th century
Father Christmas was a distinctly separate individual, middle aged not old, with a crown of leaves, and in a green fur lined robe, not a red suit, and rather than secretly visiting homes to deposit gifts, Father Christmas would roam the streets, plying people with alcohol and jollity. Father Christmas is considered to be derived from the Pre-Christian,
Green Man, a
foliage covered figure from european mythology associated with the connection of man to nature, and thought likely to have been considered in early times to be similar to
Bacchus, the roman deity of wine, who was the main figure associated with the practice of
Saturnalia. In mediaeval times, and later,
Green Man was a popular name to chose for a
pub, indicating strong connections to joyous consumption of alcohol.
Easter
Though not celebrated in many Christian countries in as lavish a manner as Christmas, Easter is usually regarded by Christianity as the most important Christian festival. All parties acknowledge similarities of Easter to the Jewish
passover, since to Christians this has strong theological significance, and many adjectives relating to Easter, such as
paschal, and the name of Easter in non-English speaking countries, are
etymologically derived from the Hebrew term for
passover. The
tenebrae, a service held by most, but not all, Christian groups, is clearly based on the idea of darkness covering the earth, though Christian apologists usually argue this is representative of Jesus being removed from the earth (due to
impending death), not on the ominous foreshadowing of the passover portrayed in the bible.
Though one of the central tenets of Christianity is usually considered to be a belief that
the Biblical events of Easter are based on similar (or exactly identical) actual historic events, more secular and non Christian scholars have argued that the Biblical description is a heavily contrived
allegory simply using the passover as its template to appeal to Jewish sensibilities. Historic records indicate that Easter was not always celebrated in early Christianity, and
Socrates Scholasticus (b. 380) argued that the observance of Easter by the church (which he believed should continue) was simply the perpetuation of local custom (most likely meaning the Jewish passover), and that neither Jesus nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this (or any other) festival.
In eastern europe and scandinavia, many easter traditions have obvious connections to the death of Jesus, such as whipping, and murder mysteries, but other traditions, mostly kept in the western world, are less obviously so. The name of Easter itself is usually considered to derive from a pre-Christian northern european deity of springtime, known as
Eostre, an argument which is thought to have been first made by the
Venerable Bede, now recognised as a
doctor of the church. Studies by
Jacob Grimm, a renowned scholar of linguistics and of mythology, agreed and suggested that the german name of
Eostre was
Ostara, and that the names are derived from a term meaning
dawn, and with spring as the
dawn of the year the deity became associated with the season. It is, however, otherwise unknown who this goddess refers to, or what her characteristics were, though Grimm does suggest that the figure might have a shared root with
Austri, the dwarf that Norse mythology believed held up the eastern corner of the world, the direction in which the sun dawns.
In Christian tradition, decorated
Easter Eggs are sometimes said to have an origin in
Mary Magdalen giving a red painted egg to a Roman emporer who had previously said that red eggs were more likely than the
resurrection of Jesus. There are also many theological interpretations of the eggs as having strong Christian symbolism. However, the giving of decorated eggs at the start of spring predate Christianity by several hundred years, eggs having long been a symbol of fertility, a property strongly celebrated during spring time. More difficult to reconcile as a Christian symbol is the
Easter Bunny, traditionally regarded as the deliverer of easter eggs. Hares are very
promiscuous animals, and consequently they have always been strong fertility symbols, and many scholars think that the two spring fertility related traditions of the giving of eggs and the symbolism of rabbits gradually merged together, until the bunny was considered to lay highly decorative eggs (rather than give
live birth, as real rabbits do). Grimm wrote that similar myths of an egg laying rabbit had been present in Germany for centuries, and suggested that they were somehow connected to the goddess
Ostara, though this suggestion was simply a speculation as he had no concrete evidence to demonstrate the association clearly.
*
Christianisation*
Christianised Myths and Imagery*
Christianised sites*
Christianised rituals*
Kerenyi, Karl,
Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life 1976.
*MacMullen, Ramsay,
Christianizing the Roman Empire, AD 100 – 400 Yale University Press (paperback, 1986 ISBN 0300036426 )
*Trombley, Frank R., 1995.
Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370-529 (in series
Religions in the Graeco-Roman World) (Brill) ISBN 9004096914
*Vesteinsson, Orri, 2000.
The Christianization of Iceland: Priests, Power, and Social Change 1000-1300 (Oxford:Oxford University Press) ISBN 0198207999
