Theology
Theology (
Greek θεος,
theos, "God", + λογος,
logos, "word" or "reason") is reasoned
discourse concerning
religion,
spirituality and
God. Theologians attempt to use rational analysis and argument to discuss, interpret, and teach on any of a myriad a
religious topics. Theology might be undertaken simply to help the theologian understand more truly his or her own religious tradition or another religious tradition, or to facilitate comparisons between traditions, or with a view to the preservation or reform of a particular tradition, or to assist in the propagation of a tradition, or to apply the resources of a tradition to some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons.
The word 'theology' has classical Greek origins, but was slowly given new senses when it was taken up in both Greek and
Latin forms by Christian authors. It is the subsequent history of the term in Christian contexts, particularly in the Latin West, that lies behind most contemporary usage, but the term can now be used to speak of reasoned discourse within and about a variety of different religious traditions. Various aspects both of the process by which the discipline of ‘theology' emerges in Christianity and the process by which this now Christian term is extended to other religions are highly controversial.
The very idea of 'theology' is controversial.
*In the Christian tradition, there have long been those who ask whether the attempt to regulate the beliefs and practices of the
Christian religion by means of 'reasoned discourse' involves the subordination of Christian faith to an inappropriate set of constraints, with some ancient and modern authors in particular claiming that it involves the subordination of the Hebraic, Jewish modes of thought of the Bible to inappropriate Greco-Roman forms of thought. Modern versions of this charge suggest that to treat theology as an academic discipline is inherently secularising, subordinating Christian content to the supposedly neutral rulings of public, secular rationality. See the section below on the
emergence of Christian theology.
*There are also related debates about the extent to which theology is a discipline purely internal to the Christian tradition, exploring the internal sense and connections of Christian ideas and practices, and the extent to which it should involve the evaluation of those ideas and practices according to the criteria of various external discourses (such as other academic disciplines). Such debates are connected to discussions about the nature of public discourse in a secular society, and the kind of account that such discourse can take of the ideas and practices of particular religious traditions. See the section below on
theology and the academy.
*There are also debates about the appropriateness of using the Christian-derived term "theology" to refer to reasoned discourses within other religious tradition, with scholars asking whether this involves the imposition of a distinctively Christian mode of thinking, or a distinctively Western, academic mode of thinking (developed in significant part in Christian contexts), on those other religions. The attempt to speak of the ‘theologies' of other religions has sometimes been held to be a form of Christian or Western Imperialism. See the section below on
theology and religions other than Christianity,
The word "Theology" is derived from Hellenistic Greek, but its meaning has changed significantly through its use in the European Christian thought of the Middle Ages and Enlightenment
*The term
theologia is used in Classical Greek literature, with the meaning "discourse on the gods or
cosmology" (see Lidell and Scott's
Greek-English Lexicon for references).
*
Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into
mathematice,
phusike and
theologike, with the latter corresponding roughly to
metaphysics, which for Aristotle included discussion of the nature of the divine. The term has since been appropriated by a number of
Eastern and
Western religious traditions.
*Drawing on Greek sources, the
Latin writer
Varro influentially distinguished three forms of such discourse: mythical (concerning the myths of the Greek gods), rational (philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology) and civil (concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance).
*
Christian writers, working within the
Hellenistic mould, began to use the term to describe their studies. It appears once in some
biblical manuscripts, in the heading to the
book of Revelation:
apokalupsis ioannou tou theologou, "the revelation of John the
theologos". There, however, the word refers not to John the "theologian" in the modern English sense of the word but -using a slightly different sense of the root
logos meaning not "rational discourse" but "word" or "message" - one who speaks the words of God -
logoi tou theou.
*Other Christian writers used the term with several different ranges of meaning.
**Some Latin authors, such as
Tertullian and
Augustine followed Varro's threefold usage, described above.
**In
patristic Greek sources,
theologia could refer narrowly to the discussion of the nature and attributes of God.
**In other patristic Greek sources,
theologia could also refer narrowly to the discussion of the attribution of divine nature to
Jesus. (It is in this sense that
Gregory Nazianzus was nicknamed "the theologian": he was a staunch defender of the divinity of Christ.)
**In
medieval Greek and Latin sources,
theologia (in the sense of "an account or record of the ways of God") could refer simply to the
Bible.
**In
scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the
doctrines of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic
discipline which investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in
Peter Lombard's
Sentences, a book of extracts from the Church Fathers).
*It is the last of these senses (theology as the rational study of the teachings of a religion or of several religions) that lies behind most modern uses (though the second - theology as a discussion specifically of a religion's or several religions' teachings about God - is also found in some academic and ecclesiastical contexts).
See the main article on the
History of theology, particularly for the history of Jewish, Christian and Islamic theology.
The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been presented as the triumph of Hellenistic rationality over the Hebraic faith of Jesus and the early disciples. The early African theologian
Tertullian, for instance, complained that the ‘Athens' of philosophy was corrupting the ‘Jerusalem' of faith.
[ Tertullian, ‘'De praescriptione haereticorum 7.] More recent discussions have qualified and nuanced this picture.
*From the very beginning of the Christian movement, followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impact of Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about differing ways of making sense. There has never been an uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.
[See, for example, Stephen Sykes, ‘'The Identity of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, ‘Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among the first Christians', ‘'Studia Theologica 58.1, pp.77-96, for arguments along these lines].
*The processes of making sense initially drew upon the ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism, which was already Hellenized in various degrees. As time went by, ideas and narratives from other Hellenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scriptures remained a key driver of theological development, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraic and Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of early Christian theologizing previously thought to be thoroughly ‘Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of John's Gospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughly Jewish.
*The ideas and narratives drawn on in this process were transformed as they were given a new context in Christian practices of devotion, community - formation and evangelism - and the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) were given new meanings in this process should not be underestimated.
[Larry Hurtado, ‘'Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)]*One of the characteristics of those strands of early Christianity (in the second and third centuries) that sometimes get called ‘proto-orthodox' (because they are the most direct ancestors of the forms of Christianity that in the fourth century got defined as Orthodox), invested a great deal of time and energy in communication between widely spread conversations, and in pursuing a deep interest in each other's beliefs and practices. This concern and communication seems to have been as much a driver of the development of theological activity as the desire to communicate Christianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.
[See Rowan Williams, ‘Does it make sense to speak of preâ€"Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed.) ‘'The Making of Orthodoxy'' (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp.1-23.]In academic theological circles, there is some debate as to whether theology is an activity peculiar to the Christian religion. If so we should distinguish
Christian Theology from others. It is seen by some to be a term only appropriate to the study of a
deity (a theos) within a presupposed belief in the ability to speak and
reason about the subject (in logia) - and so to be less appropriate in religious contexts which are organized differently (i.e. religions without a deity, or which deny that such subjects can be studied logically). (
Hierology has been proposed as an alternative, more generic term.)
|
Averroes, like many important Muslims who wrote about God, is not usually associated with "Theology" |
For example, some academic courses on
Buddhism which are dedicated to the rational investigation of a Buddhist understanding of the world prefer the designation
Buddhist philosophy to the term Buddhist theology, since Buddhism lacks the same conception of a
theos.
Hinduism has a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed
Brahman in some schools of Hindu thought) and of the
Atman (soul), included within
Hindu philosophy. Some schools within the
Vedanta branch of Hindu philosophy like
Dvaita and
Vishishtadvaita can loosely be called theologies. However the
Sanskrit word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is
Darshana (meaning, view or viewpoint).
Moreover, the application of the term Theology to religions similar to Christianity can be misleading. in
Islam, theological discussion which parallels Christian theological discussion has been a minor and even slightly disreputable activity, named "
Kalam"; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of
Islamic law, or "
Fiqh".
In
Judaism the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and
synagogue, rather than within specialised academic institutions. Nevertheless Jewish Theology has been historically very active and highly significant for Christian and Islamic Theology. Once again, the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be
Rabbinical discussion of
Jewish law and
Jewish Biblical commentaries.
Theology has a significantly problematic relationship to
Academia that is not shared by any other subject. Most
universities founded before the modern era grew out of the church schools and
monastic institutions of
Western Europe during the
High Middle Ages (e.g.
University of Bologna,
Paris University and
Oxford University). They were founded to train young men to serve the church in Theology and
Law (often Church or
Canon law). At such Universities Theological study was incomplete without Theological practice, including
preaching,
prayer and the
Mass. Ancient Universities still maintain some of these links (e.g. having
Chapels and
Chaplains) and are more likely to teach Theology than other institutions.
During the High Middle Ages theology was therefore the main subject at universities, being named "The Queen of the Sciences" alongside the
Trivium and
Quadrivium that young men were expected to study. This meant that the other subjects (including
Philosophy) existed primarily to help with theological thought.
With
the Enlightenment universities began to change, teaching a wide range of subjects, especially in Germany, and from a
Humanistic perspective. Theology was no longer the principle subject and Universities existed for many purposes, not only to train
Clergy for
established churches. Theology thus became unusual as the only subject to maintain a confessional basis in otherwise secular establishments.
As a result theology is often distinguished from many other established
Academic disciplines that cover the same subject area. Those who contend it is different sometimes claim that it is distinguished by viewpoint (suggesting that theology is studied from within a faith, rather than from without) and by practical involvement (suggesting theology cannot be truly studied or understood without a practical faith - an idea that would have been familiar to some of the early Christian
Church Fathers, who described the theologian as a person who "truly prays."). Others would simply claim that theology involves taking seriously claims internal to a religious tradition on their own terms, as topics for investigation and analysis - studying people's beliefs about God, rather than necessarily studying God, perhaps - even if that inquiry is not carried out by one who is committed to the relevant tradition, or involved in practice flowing from it.
Nevertheless theology should be distinguished from the following disciplines;
*
Comparative religion/
Religious studies*
Philosophy of Religion* The
History of Religions*
Psychology of Religion*
Sociology of ReligionAll of these normally involve studying the historical or contemporary practices or ideas of one or several religious traditions using intellectual tools and frameworks which are not themselves specifically tied to any religious tradition, but are (normally) understood to be neutral or secular.
Even when it is distinguished from these other disciplines, however, some hold that the very idea of an academic discipline called 'theology', housed in institutions like Universities, is an inherently
secular, Western notion.
[See, for instance, debates on the Talk page for this article between Stevertigo, Mahigton and Totalthinker.] Noting that 'reasoned discourse about religion/God' is an idea with a very particular intellectual pedigree, with at least soom roots in Graeco-Roman intellectual culture (see above, under
The emergence of Christian theology), they argue that this idea actually brings with it deep assumptions which we can now see to be related to ideas underlying 'secularism': i.e., the whole idea of reasoned discourse about God/religion suggests the possibility of a common intellectual framework or set of tools for investigating, comparing and evaluating traditions - an idea with a strong affinity for a 'secular' worldview in which religions are seen as particular choices, set within an overarching religiously neutral public sphere. They argue that even those who pursue this discourse as a way of deepening their commitment to and expertise in their own tradition, perhaps even so as to become promoters and propagators of it, often do so in a way which underlines this same 'secular' atmosphere - by assuming the communicability of their religious views (as explored and explained by theological discourse) within a neutral intellectual market-place.
In
Europe, the traditional places for the study of theology have been
universities and
seminaries. Typically the
protestant state churches have trained their ministers in universities while the
Catholic church has used seminaries. However, the secularization of European states has closed down the theological
faculties in many countries while the Catholic church has increased the academical level of its priests by founding a number of pontifical universities.
In some countries, some state-funded Universities have theology Departments (sometimes, but not always, Universities with a medieval or early-modern pedigree), which can have a variety of formal relationships to Christian churches, or to institutions within other religious traditions. These range from Departments of Theology which have only informal or ad-hoc links to religious institutions (see, for instance, several Theology departments in the UK) to countries like
Finland and
Sweden, which have state universities with faculties of theology training
Lutheran priests as well as teachers and scholars of religion - although students from the latter faculties can also go on to typical graduate careers such as marketing, business or administration, even if this is frowned upon by some.
In the United States, the
United States Constitution prevents the study of theology from enjoying state endorsement. Theological studies (sometimes called
Biblical studies) take place in a large number of private universities and seminaries, at varying academic levels and with various different degrees of
academic freedom. Some hold that many of these American contexts for the study of theology have less academic freedom than the faculties of theology in many European state universities, pointing out that, at least in some of these contexts, theologians who end up with views deemed "heretical" by the denomination upholding the institution and may find themselves out of work.
Theology can be divided up in any number of ways. Many of these divisions have originated in the study of the Christian religion, although some have been adapted and extended to apply to other religions, or to the study of multiple religions.
In many Christian seminaries, the four Great Departments of Theology are:# Exegetical Theology# Historical Theology#
Systematic Theology# Practical Theology
The four departments can usefully be subdivided in the following way:
1.
Exegetical Theology:
* Biblical Studies (analysis of the contents of Scripture)
* Biblical Introduction (inquiry into the origins of the Bible)
* Canonics (inquiry into how the different books of the Bible came to be collected together)
* Biblical Theology (inquiry into how divine revelation progressed over the course of the Bible).
2.
Historical Theology (study of how Christian theology develops over time):
* The
Patristic Period ** The Ante-Nicene Fathers
** The Nicene Fathers
** The Post-Nicene Fathers
* The Middle Ages
* the Reformation and Counter-Reformation
* the Modern Period.
3.
Systematic Theology:
* The Existence of God
* The Attributes of God
* The
Trinity*
Christology* Creation
* Providence
* Doctrine of Man (
theological anthropolgy)
*
Soteriology* Justification
* Sanctification
* Eschatology and the Afterlife.
(though note: subdivisions in the area of Systematic Theology are probably more apt to vary across differeng theologies than in the other 3 types of theology)
4.
Practical Theology:
*
Moral Theology (Christian Ethics and Casuistry)
*
Ecclesiology* Pastoral Theology
** Liturgics
** Homiletics
** Christian Education
** Christian Counselling)
*
Missiology.
Theology can also be divided up into :
Academic subdisciplines;
*
Biblical Theology - focused on the investigation and interpretation of a religions' scriptures, especially noting different emphases (theologies) within different biblical books.
*
Biblical Studies - focused on the interpretation and exegesis of the Bible.
*
Historical Theology - focused on the intellectual history of the religion
*
Moral Theology - explores the
moral and
ethical dimensions of the religious life
*
Patrology - studies the teaching of
Church Fathers.
*
Practical Theology - dedicated to the practical application of theological insights. Generally includes the subdisciplines of
pastoral theology,
homiletics, and Christian
education, among others.
*
Systematic theology (doctrinal theology, dogmatic theology or philosophical theology) - focused on the attempt to arrange and interpret the ideas current in the religion. This is also associated with
Constructive Theology.
*
Theology and the Arts - interdisciplinary study examining the relationship between theology and the arts (i.e., literature, music, film, painting, etc.)
Topic (or by 'Loci');
*
Angelology (less common than it used to be) -
angels, the unseen world
*
Bibliology (a less common term than most of the others) - the
Bible, the nature and means of its inspiration, etc.;
hermeneutics is the study of proper biblical interpretation (
exegesis).
*
Christology (normally only in Christianity) - Jesus
Christ, the nature of Christ, the relationship between the divine and human in Christ
*
Covenant theology, an interpretive grid that understands God's plans in the Old and New Testaments as being a result of God's covenant with his chosen people. This movement is an alternative to
Dispensationalism. (Covenant theology is one way to approach the subdiscipline of Biblical Theology.)
*
Demonology (much less common than it used to be) -
Satan,
demons, evil spirits
*
Dispensational Theology - an interpretative grid that views God's relationship with the created order as passing through successive "dispensations", in each of which the covenants of the previous one(s) may no longer be valid. (Dispensationalism is one way to approach the subdiscipline of Biblical Theology.)
*
Ecclesiology - the
church*
Eschatology - literally, the study of 'last things' or 'ultimate things'. Covers subjects such as death and the
afterlife, the end of
history, the end of the
world, the
last judgment, the nature of
hope and
progress, etc.
*
Harmatiology (often considered under 'soteriology') - sin
*
Missiology (often a subsection of ecclesiology) - missions, evangelism, etc.
*
Soteriology - the nature and means of salvation
*
Theodicy - Attempts at reconciling the existence of all the
evil and suffering in the world with the nature and power of the God or gods of the religion
*
Theological anthropology - nature of human being, formerly known as the
Doctrine of Man.
*
Theology Proper -
God or the divine: attributes, nature, and relation to the world. Often includes discussion of
Creation and
providence. See
the nature of God in Western theology.
*
Pneumatology - the
Holy Spirit or divine Spirit; sometimes also 'geist' as in Hegelianism and other philosophico-theological systems;
Modes;
*
Apophatic theology (or negative theology; sometimes contrasted with "cataphatic theology") - the discussion of what God is
not, or the investigation of how language about God breaks down
*
dialectical theology*
Natural theology - the discussion of those aspects of theology that can be investigated without the help of revelation, scriptures or tradition (sometimes contrasted with "positive theology") - the discussion of those aspects of theology
Movements;
*
Black theology*
Ecumenical theology*
Evangelical theology*
Reformed Theology*
Feminist theology* Unification theology
*
Holocaust theology(In response to the horrors of
the Holocaust especially in relation to
Theodicy)
*
Liberal theology*
Liberation theology*
Neo-Orthodoxy*
Paleo-Orthodoxy*
Postliberal theology or
Narrative theology*
Postmodern theology*
Process Theology or Neo-classical Theology
*
Queer Theology*
Revisionist theology*
Transcendental Theology* Theology is "faith seeking understanding (fides quaerens intellectum)." -
Anselm of Canterbury* "Theology is the effort to explain the unknowable in terms of the not worth knowing." -
H. L. Mencken* "An authentic theology will not allow man to be obsessed with himself." -
Thomas F. Torrance in
Reality and Scientific Theology* "Theology announces not just what the Bible says but what it means." -
J. Kenneth Grider in
A Wesleyan-Holiness Theology (Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 1994), p. 19.
* "Theologians, they don't know nothin' bout my soul." -
Wilco, "Theologians",
A Ghost Is Born.
* "I have no use for cranks who despise music, because it is a gift of God. Music drives away the Devil and makes people gay; they forget thereby all wrath, unchastity, arrogance, and the like. Next after theology, I give to music the highest place and the greatest honor." â€"
Martin Luther, quoted in
Martin Marty,
Martin Luther, 2004, p. 114.
*
Agnosticism*
Apostasy*
Ascetical theology*
Atheism*
Christian theology*
Christian apologetics*
Creationism*
Doctor of Divinity*
Exegesis*
Heresy*
Hierology*
History of theology*
Justification By Faith*
Liberation theology*
Natural theology*
NeurotheologyOdium theologicum*
Philosophy of religion*
Process theology*
Propitiation*
Queer Theology*
Scholasticism*
Systematic theology see also
Constructive Theology*
Perfection ("Ontological and theological perfection")
*
The Urantia Book (numerous topics on theology circa 1925-1955)
*
Religion Online (online resources)
*
The Theology Program(Evangelical Theological Studies featuring audio and video resources articles and discussion forums featuring scholars)
*
Wabash Center (online resources)
*
Computer-Assisted Theology (online resources)
*
Virtual Religion (online resources)
*
Christian Classics Library (online resources)
*
Fides Quaerens Internetum (online resources)
*
Theopedia (conservative Calvinist)
*
TheoWiki (InterFaith)
*
Catholic Apologetics of America (Roman Catholic)
*
Faith and Theology (Protestant)
*
Resources for Christian Theology (Protestant)
*
Monergism: Systematic Theology (conservative Calvinist)
*
Third Millennium Ministries (Reformed theological resources)
*
Wesley Center for Applied Theology (Wesleyan/Holiness)
*
Theology Discussion (open/non-denominational)
*
Traditional Catholic Reflections & Reports (Catholic, Ecumenical, Spirituality, Social Justice)
*
Traditional Dispensational (Dispensational conservative resources)
