Troubadour
|
A troubadour composing lyrics, Germany c.1300 |
A
troubadour was a composer and performer of songs during the
High Middle Ages in
Europe. The tradition began to flourish during the
11th century. The earliest troubadour whose work survives is Guilhem de Peitieus (Guillaume d'Aquitaine or
William IX, Duke of Aquitaine,
1071 -
1127). However, Peter Dronke, author of
The Medieval Lyric, notes that "[his] songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition."
[ Peter Dronke, The Medieval Lyric, Perennial Library, 1968. p. 111. ] His name has been preserved because he was a Duke, but his work plays with already established structures;
Eble le chanteur is often credited as a predecessor, though none of his work survives. The style flourished in the eleventh century and was often imitated in the
thirteenth. Many troubadours traveled for great distances, aiding in the transmission of trade and news.
The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of
chivalry and
courtly love. Many songs addressed a married lover, perhaps due to the prevalence of arranged marriages at the time. The
aubade formed a popular
genre.
The etymology of the word troubadour is controversial. In general, the argument breaks into two camps. Romanists argue that the root of the word can be found either in the
Occitan verb
trobar, 'to compose, invent, or devise', or in the
Vulgar Latin tropare, 'to say with tropes'. By contrast, Arabists posit an
Arabic origin in the word
tarrab, 'to sing'.
The word is used to designate poet-musicians who spoke Occitan (or
langue d'oc); their style spread to the
trouvères in the north of France, who spoke
langues d'oïl.
Some of the troubadours' works have survived, and is currently preserved in manuscripts known as
chansonniers (songbooks).Troubadours with surviving works include
Bernart de Ventadorn,
Arnaut Daniel and
Jaufré Rudel.
Troubadour songs were usually
monophonic. Fewer than 300 melodies out of an estimated 2500
[The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music edited by Stanley Sadie. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.] surviveâ€"most of which were composed by the troubadours themselves. Other troubadours set their poems to already existing pieces of music; Raimbaut de Vaqueyras wrote his
Kalenda maya (The Calends of May) to music composed by
Montferrat,
fiddle players.
Troubadours usually followed some form of "rules", illustrated in
Leys d'amors (compiled in
1340). The commonly used verse form of the troubadours was the
canso, consisting of five or six
stanzas with an
envoi. Other variances of verse form seen in surviving works include
Dansa, or
balada, a dance song with a
refrainPastorela, telling the tale of the love request by a
knight to a shepherdess
Jeu parti,
tenso,
partimen or
débat, a debate on love between two poets
Alba (morning song), lovers are warned by a watchman that morning approaches and that their spouse may discover them.
Escondig, a lover's apology
Gap, a challenge
Planh, a lament
Sirventes, a
satirical poem devised to a melody
Descort, discordant in verse form or feeling
A complementary role was filled at the same period by performers known as
joglares in Occitan,
jongleurs in French (minstrels in English). Jongleurs are often addressed in troubadour lyrics. Their profession was that of popular entertainer; as such jongleurs sometimes performed troubadour compositions but more often other genres, notably
chansons de geste (epic narratives).
The German
Minnesingers are closely related to, and inspired by, troubadours, but have distinctive features of their own.
*
Alba*
List of troubadours*
Provençal literature*
Sestina*
Kyrielle*
Envoi*
Minstrel*
Medieval music*
Razó (Occitan literary form)*
Trobairitz*
Trouvère*
Vida (Occitan literary form)*
Literary Encyclopedia - Troubadour*
Troubadours and Occitania*
Troubadour Books Books on Troubadour History, Music, Poetry and Influences.
*Ardis Butterfield (1997). "Monophonic song: questions of category",
Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198165404.
*Gaunt and Kay (1999). "The Troubadours: An Introduction". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521574730.
*Kehew, Robert, ed. (2005). "Lark in the Morning: The Verses of the Troubadours. A Bilingual Edition". Chicago University Press. ISBN 0226429334.
